Icelandic university students English reading skills

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1 MÁLFRÍÐUR 15 Icelandic university students English reading skills Robert Berman. Róbert Berman er dósent í ensku á menntavísindasviði Háskóla Íslands. Reading at university is one of the most important activities in which students have to engage (Fairbairn and Fairbairn, 2001). Moreover, reading ability is especially critical when the reading is done not in the student s first language, but rather in English, for the ability to read academic texts is considered one of the most important skills for students whose first language is not English (Levine et al, 2000; Grabe, 1991). However, there is a perception at the University of Iceland that many students lack of proficiency in academic English is a factor in the drop-out rate of 50% after the first year of study (Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir, 2007). One has heard the argument for many years that English in Iceland is not just another foreign language, like German or French, but is closer to a second language, exemplified for example by the prevalence of English on the reading lists of most university courses. I noted in 1995 that English held a status more closely associated with though not matching a second language, in terms of its commercial, professional and social value (Berman, 1995, p. 20). Interestingly, nobody has been prepared to claim that English has become an actual second language in Iceland. For example, Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir (2007) reiterates the point that English is somewhere between a foreign and second language here. Perhaps we have been lulled into behaving as if English is virtually a second language in Iceland, by doing things like assigning academic English readings in university courses, based on the prevalence of English in the environment and on Icelanders obvious ability to chat in English. Here it is useful to look at the place of English in two of Iceland s neighbouring countries. In Denmark almost twenty years ago Phillipson (1992) did go further than anyone in Iceland has been prepared to go, declaring that in his country, English can be regarded as a second language rather than a foreign language (p.25). However, Phillipson seems to be alone. For example, Preisler insists that English must still be considered a foreign rather than a second language in Denmark (2005, p. 238). Moreover, Graddol (2000) lists 19 countries (including Denmark, Norway and Sweden, but curiously not Iceland nor Finland) which can be regarded as in the process of shifting towards L2 status (p. 11). In other words, in Graddol s estimation, Denmark is not there yet. It is interesting that Phillipson has gone on to argue that Danes suffer from the delusion inherent in the common myth that Danes are good at English (Phillipson, 2001, p. 22). So, in Phillipson s mind, the high status of English does not necessarily mean that Danes have become especially proficient in the language. Similarly, in Norway, Hellekjær (2009) discusses a number of recent studies that have challenged Norwegian complacency about its citizens English proficiency, leading to his assertion that while most Norwegians may seem orally proficient in everyday situations, in the sense of possessing basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS; Cummins, 2000), this does not mean that they have developed the cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) English needed for higher education or for occupational purposes. (Hellekjær, 2009, p. 198), Hellekjær proceeds to show in his study of students from three faculties at the University of Oslo that at least 32% of the 578 respondents in this study may have considerable difficulties reading academic English texts (Hellekjær, 2009, p. 206). In light of: (1) the perception that poor English

2 16 MÁLFRÍÐUR proficiency may contribute towards the high dropout rate at the University of Iceland; (2) Phillipson s claim that Danes are not as proficient in English as the status of the language in Denmark would lead one to believe; (3) Hellekjær s findings that many Norwegian university students have difficulty reading academic English; it is clear that we need to assess how well Icelandic university students are able to read academic English, and not be lulled by Icelanders apparent comfort and skill in talking casually. To test the reading proficiency of Icelandic university students, reading passages were used from students own courses. I did this first because, as Peretz and Shoham found (1990), EFL students prefer texts on topics that are, or appear to be, related to their field of study, which they rate to be easier. (Although Peretz and Shoham go on to point out that students hunches about what is easy are not always a reliable index of their performance.) In other words, I wanted students to be motivated to read texts which they would consider relevant. Second, choosing reading material from students courses meant that the tests would allow predictions to be made of students success in dealing with their actual English reading requirements, although of course using different tests meant that comparisons could not be made between faculties. The effectiveness of using reading tests containing students background knowledge is disputed. Carrell (1983) found that nonnative readers show virtually no significant effects of background knowledge, as did Clapham (1990). On the other hand, (Just et al, 1982) found that if readers are already familiar with the content, then the comprehension test may be probing previous knowledge rather than comprehension. In any case, I ensured that the reading test passages were texts that the students had not yet read, so although they were in the students chosen field, they were likely to contain some unknown information or an unconsidered perspective. I began by carrying out a small-scale pilot study with third-year undergraduate students in an American culture course. The reading section of the test included an off-the-shelf TOEFL-like test on slavery (a topic that the students had already encountered), and a reading comprehension test that I had developed, based on an academic text (and topic) that the class had not yet considered, the relative lack of social mobility in post-reagan America (Weir, 2007). I also administered a listening test, on which I will not report here, except to mention that the short-answer test items of this test proved to be more reliable than its multiple choice test items. The TOEFL-like reading test scores were shown to be unreliable, with many students scoring perfectly, so these scores were disregarded. (Of course as a summative course test, this would be the result one would hope for, but as a research instrument, students wholesale acing of this test on a familiar topic was not useful.) On the other hand, the results of the reading comprehension test on the rise of Class in America since the 1980s, a new concept for the students, were more interesting. The average score was 69%, with about half the students scoring above 60% and about half scoring below 60%. Considering the fact that these were third year students taking the pilot test, I was relieved that almost everyone passed. It was clear from the pilot that it was in fact possible to administer a reading test based on a course-related text, as long as the topic had not been widely covered, and it also became clear that test reliability using short-answer questions was indeed possible. Incoming students in Science and Engineering engage in a combined orientation session spanning a couple of days in September. During this time, one of the many activities they carry out is reading and discussing an English text which highlights some of the differences between science and engineering, such as the different place that theory holds within each discipline, and the two fields different concepts of what knowledge is. This year s text was to be The Wisdom of Engineers (McCarthy, 2009), administered to the students who attended on day two of the orientation, numbering over 300. I cut two theoretical sections from the original text, largely to edit its size from 2,500 words to just over 2,300. Students were allotted 50 minutes to read the text and answer the 10 questions with short English or Icelandic answers. Answers were worth 1 or 2, depending on the complexity of the questions, and there were no half points given. As students began finishing the test (or appearing to finish the test) after only 25 minutes, the orientation administrator suddenly announced to the students that they would have five more minutes to complete the test. Unfortunately, having only 30 minutes to answer 10 questions on a rather complex academic text meant that too few students (just under 20%) completed the whole test. Therefore, in discussing these students reading proficiency, only answers to the first six questions will be analysed here, since most participants did complete these first six answers.

3 MÁLFRÍÐUR 17 Point-biserial correlations showed all of the test items to be acceptable, and Cronbach s Alpha statistical calculation showed the test itself to be reliable, at.61. The following analyses are based on a random sampling of 171 of the approximately 300 tests. In other words, the sample here is more than half of the whole population, so there is no doubt that it is representative. As mentioned above, only the first six items, comprising a possible 8-point score, will be analysed. The mean score of the participants was 4.85, or about 61%. Distribution of the scores was as follows: Scores 6 to 8 (at least 75% correct): 64 students, or over 37% of the participants. Scores 4 or 5 (50% to 62.5% correct): 69 students, or over 40% of the participants. Scores 0 to 3 (25% to 37.5% correct): 38 students, or over 22% of the participants. So over three-quarters of the students seem to be able to read academic English with at least satisfactory results, scoring 50% or higher (and almost half of these students scored very high indeed). However, a good fifth of the students seem to have real trouble with the text, scoring under 50%. These results are in line with those Hellekjær in Norway, who found that about 30% of the students in his study had trouble reading academic English, and with other international studies of university students (e.g. Ward, 2009, who reports a Thai university study). But are we witnessing an English reading problem here, or a reading problem? In reporting the results of the 2000 PISA study on reading in the mother tongue (OECD, 2004), which was administered to 15- year olds in many countries, Elísabet Arnadóttir and Guðmundur B. Kristmundsson (2004) note that 14% of the Icelandic participants exhibited reading levels so low that employment involving any reading would be difficult for them to pursue (See also OECD, 2004, p. 5). But they add that if the more stringent criteria used by some other nations were applied to determine the threshold that would impact employment opportunities, then about 45% of Icelandic students would fall within this category: Samkvæmt niðurstöðum PISA-rannsóknarinnar eru um 14% unglinga það illa læsir að þeir eiga í verulegum erfiðleikum með að lesa og líklegt er að þeir geti vart stundað störf þar sem eitthvað reynir á lestur, þó í litlu sé. Sumar þjóðir, sem þátt tóku í þessari rannsókn, setja viðmiðunarmark örðugleika nokkuð hátt og ef það viðmið er notað hér falla um 45% nemenda innan þeirra marka. (Elísabet Arnadóttir and Guðmundur B. Kristmundsson, 2004 p.23). In their recent wide ranging study of literacy among Icelandic adults, Elísabet Arnadóttir, Guðmundur B. Kristmundsson & Amalía Björnsdóttir (2006) note that among the study s sample of adult Icelanders, 51% of the 127 participants who had vocational or secondary school education reported wanting to improve their reading speed; 30% wanted to improve their reading comprehension; and 25% wanted to improve their skill in dealing with text and analysing its content (2006, p.39). It seems clear that there are many secondary school graduates who feel that their first language reading skills do not meet their needs. At this point, it should be noted that many researchers have reiterated Cummins (1991) point that there are consistently significant correlations between L1 and L2 reading abilities (p.77). Cummins went on to postulate that literacy-related skills, or academic proficiency skills are interdependent across languages: To the extent that instruction in Lx is effective in promoting [academic] proficiency in Lx, transfer of this proficiency to Ly will occur provided there is adequate exposure to Ly (either in school or environment) and adequate motivation to learn Ly (Cummins, 1991, p.77). If we think of Icelandic as Lx and English as Ly, it can probably be assumed that Icelanders have adequate motivation to learn Ly. Whether they have adequate exposure to Ly is an essential research question. But the point is moot if academic proficiency is lacking in many Icelanders mother tongue, for in that case there is nothing for them to transfer from Lx to Ly! So far, I have argued that English is more than simply another foreign language in a number of countries, including Iceland. Exemplifying its importance is the fact that English reading proficiency is now crucial in university studies. I have gone on to show that English reading skills may be lacking among a sizable section of the Icelandic university population at the start of their studies, as also seems to be the case in Norway, to take one example. However, I speculate that what we see in Iceland may not be so much an English deficit as a reading deficit or even an academic proficiency deficit. In support of the last possibility, it could be that

4 18 MÁLFRÍÐUR what we are witnessing in Iceland is an international phenomenon of decreased academic skills among university students. For example, the ACT (American College Testing) report on the 2009 graduating class in the United States which is based on the test results of almost 1.5 million students, states that only 67% of American high school graduates were prepared to pass a college level composition course, and only 53% a college level social science course (ACT, 2009, p. 8). Scores were even lower for biology and algebra. Evidence from Canada (whose 15 year olds scored second-highest among the countries participating in the PISA 2000 reading assessment) is not dissimilar, although the evidence is more anecdotal and more concerned with writing than reading. (However, it should be noted that reading and writing skills are closely linked.) Thirty per cent of first-year university students do not pass the University of Waterloo s mandatory English entrance exam, up from 25 per cent five years ago (So, 2010). In the same article, R. K. Hemani of Simon Fraser University reports the same trend in English proficiency at his university, where 10% of incoming students do not qualify to enrol in the university s mandatory writing courses, and instead need to take preparatory writing courses. I do not wish to minimise the results of the present study, with about one fifth of incoming Science and Engineering students seeming to have trouble reading an English text related to their field. After all, this seems to indicate the existence of a problem. But it is worth asking the question as to whether this is an English proficiency problem, a reading proficiency problem, or an academic proficiency problem, for the solution for each problem may be somewhat different. Revised elementary, secondary and university curricula are undoubtedly part of the solution, with more focussed instruction on academic reading strategies and/or academic thinking strategies required, probably at all levels of education. But first, more focussed research needs to be undertaken in students cognitive and reading skills, in both English and Icelandic, at all levels of education. References ACT (2009). ACT Profile Report: Graduating Class Retrieved February 20, 2010 at: National2009.pdf. Alderson, J.C. (1984). Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language problem? In J.C. Alderson & A.H.Urquhart, (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language. London: Longman. Berman, R. (1995). Transfer of writing skills between languages: L1 versus L2 teaching of persuasive essay writing to intermediate-level Icelandic EFL students. Unpublished doctoral thesis. University of Lancaster. Carrell, P.L. (1983). Three components of background knowledge in reading comprehension. Language Learning, 33, Clapham, C. (1990) Is ESP testing justified? Paper presented at 12th Language Testing Research Colloquium, San Francisco, CA. Cummins, J. (1991). Interdependence of first- and second-language proficiency in bilingual children. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Elísabet Arnadóttir and Guðmundur B. Kristmundsson (2004). Rannsókn á læsi fullorðinna. Gátt. Ársrit Fræðslumiðstöð atvinnulífsins. Retrieved February 20, 2010, at: %7B3632a d-467c-8e3d-a327cee1e2f1%7D_arsrit.pdf. Elísabet Arnadóttir, Guðmundur B. Kristmundsson and Amalía Björnsdóttir (2006). Læsi fullorðinna: Lesindi og ritvenjur. Reykjavík: Rannsóknarstofnun Kennaraháskóla Íslands. Fairbairn, G.J. and Fairbairn, S.A. (2001) Reading at University: A Guide for Students. Buckingham: Open University Press. Grabe, W. (1991). Current Developments in Second Language Reading Research. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 3. Graddol, D. (2000). The Future of English? A guide to forecasting the popularity of the English language in the 21 st century. British Council. Retrieved February 14, 2010, at: Just, M.A., Adam, M., Carpenter, P.A. & Woolley J. D. (1982). Paradigms and Processes in Reading Comprehension. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 111 (2) Levine, A., Ferenz, O. and Reves, T. (2000). EFL Academic Reading and Modern Technology: How Can We Turn Our Students into Independent Critical Readers? TESL-EJ, V.4, No. 4. Retrieved February 12, 2010, at: McCarthy, N. (2009) The Wisdom of Engineers. In TPM, 41. OECD (2004). Messages from Pisa Paris. OECD. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford UP. Phillipson, R. (2001). English or no to English in Scandinavia? English Today 17:2: Preisler, B. (2005). Deconstructing the domain of science as a sociolinguistic entity in EFL societies: The relationship between English and Danish in higher education and research. In Preisler, B., Fabricius, A., Haberland, H., Kjærbeck, S. and Risager, K. (eds). The Consequences of Mobility. Roskilde: Roskilde University, So, K. (2010). Students English Needs Improvement: Waterloo. In The Charlatan, Carleton University Newspaper. Retrieved February 26, 2010 at: -english-needs-improvement-waterloo. Yamashita, J. (2007). The Relationship of Reading Attitudes Between L1 And L2: An Investigation of Adult EFL Learners in Japan. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 1. Ward, J. (2009). EAP reading and lexis for Thai engineering undergraduates. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 8. Weir, R.E. (2007) Social Mobility. In Weir, R.E. (Ed.) Class in America: An Encyclopedia, Volumes 1-3. Greenwood Press: Westport.

5 MÁLFRÍÐUR 19 Nám á ferð og flugi Ida Semey Ida Semey er spænskukennari við Menntaskólann í Hamrahlíð. Nám á ferð og flugi er tilraunaverkefni í byrjendakennslu í spænsku við Menntaskóla Borgarfjarðar sem hófst á haustönn Tilgangur verkefnisins var að þróa og prófa þá möguleika sem farsímar bjóða upp á í tungumálakennslu.verkefnið, sem flokkast undir það sem kallast á ensku mobile learning, var unnið í samvinnu við Símann sem gaf fimm farsíma af gerðinni Nokia Music Express. Símarnir eru með snertiskjá, auðveldir og þægilegir í notkun og því aðlaðandi kostur fyrir nemendur. Útbúin var taska með fimm farsímum til notkunar í kennslustundum. Nemendur í tveimur spænskuhópum á byrjunastigi hafa núna notað símana til að vinna munnleg verkefni sem flokkast undir svokölluð portfolioverkefni. Eftir fyrstu tvo mánuðina í spænskunámi sínu hafa nemendurnir lært að miðla og taka við ýmsum upplýsingum varðandi sjálfa sig, svo sem nafn, aldur, þjóðerni, fjölskylduhagi, lýsingu á útliti, stjörnumerki, búsetu, nám, skóla og skólahúsnæði, námsgreinar. Þeir hafa unnið þrjú verkefni hingað til: 1. Samtal skipst á upplýsingum 2. Kynning á sjálfum sér 3. Kynning á skólanum. Í fyrstu tveimur verkefnunum var nemendunum skipt í tveggja manna hópa þar sem þeir unnu verkefnin saman, hjálpuðust að við að setja saman textann og leiðrétta hvorn annan. Þeir æfðu framburð saman, lásu textann hvor fyrir annan, og tóku síðan upp samtalið og kynninguna á símann í videoformi. Mælt var með að taka upp nokkrum sinnum og velja besta bútinn. Síðan var efnið fært yfir í tölvu og unnið úr því myndband á spænsku. Í þriðja verkefninu fóru nemendurnir saman um skólann og tóku myndir af öllu rýminu innan skólans. Þeir mynduðu einnig skólann utan frá. Myndirnar voru settar inn í tölvu og raðað saman í þeirri röð sem hópunum fannst koma best út. Eftir það settu nemendurnir texta á spænsku inn á myndirnar, bjuggu til texta til að tala inn á sem kynningu á skólanum og unnu myndband. Í fyrsta verkefninu lærðu nemendurnir á tæknina og fengu samtímis ögrandi verkefni að setja saman samtal á framandi tungmál, taka það upp og sýna öðrum. Þeir æfðu sig og reyndu eftir fremsta megni að vera eins eðlileg og hægt var. Í næsta verkefni var tæknin engin fyrirstaða og nú voru gæði innihaldsins mun betri. Úrvinnsla verkefnisins fól í sér umræður, samvinnunám og jafningjamat innan nemendahópsins. Í þriðja verkefninu unnu nemendurnir á svipaðan hátt, röðuðu saman því sem þeir höfðu tekið upp, sömdu texta, þar sem þeir studdust við námsefnið sem þeir höfðu verið að vinna, og töluðu inn á myndbandið. Þar sem námsefnið verður notað í verkefni sem við vinnum með spænskunemum í skóla í Frakklandi, voru nemendur ákveðnir í að vinna verkefnið vel. Því voru umræður varðandi framburð, orðaforða og orðaröð í setningu efst á baugi, ásamt hugleiðingum varðandi hvernig það ætti að setja saman myndband, texta og tal. Spænskunemarnir hafa notað símana við gerð verkefna á vorönn 2010 og væntanlega verður tekin saman skýrsla í lok vorannar þar sem fram koma kostir og gallar verkefnisins og fjallað verður um afrakstur þess. Hugmyndin að baki notkun farsíma við verkefnavinnu í spænsku er kannski fyrst og fremst óbein hvatning til notkunar tungumálsins og þjálfun munnlegrar færni. Nemendur fá tækifæri til að nýta sér farsíma sem passar í vasann, fara út úr kennslustofunni og taka upp hljóð og myndir. Lokastig verkefnsins er að búa til myndband í farsímanum og fullvinna það í tölvunni. Svona verkefni má síðan setja á veraldarvefinn og hugsanlegt er að ferðamenn geti nálgast upplýsingar á spænsku, unnar af nemendum skólans, í sínum farsímum um til dæmis Borgarnes, Borgarbyggð, um skólann, svo dæmi séu tekin. Nám á ferð og flugi eða mobile learning, er ný leið í tungumálanámi, bæði tæknilega og fræðilega séð, sem er að ryðja sér til rúms með tilkomu smartsímanna. Framlag nemenda, námsferlið og endanlega útkoma er á þeirra eigin forsendum og því má segja að verkefnið sé þeirra frá upphafi til enda. Það er von okkar, sem skipulögðum verkefnið og héldum utan um allt ferlið, að þessi nýja leið í tungumálanámi ýti undir meira nemendasjálfstæði, meira samvinnunám og um leið einstaklingsmiðað nám.

6 20 MÁLFRÍÐUR Tal í fjarkennslu er netið nóg? Ragna Kemp Ragna Kemp er þýskukennari við Verslunarskóla Íslands og formaður félags þýskukennara. Inngangur Tilgangurinn með þessu verkefni er að rannsaka hvaða möguleikar eru á því að talið, sem er einn af færniþáttunum fjórum í tungumálakennslu, hafi jafna áherslu í kennslu á netinu og hinir færniþættirnir þrír sem eru hlustun, ritun og lestur. Hvaða áherslur eru á tal í tungumálakennslu í nýrri námskrá? Hvaða rannsóknir hafa verið gerðar á því hvernig tungumálakennsla á netinu fer fram og hvað leiða þær í ljós? Í fyrsta kaflanum er farið yfir hvernig færniþættir í kennslu tungumála, og þá sérstaklega talið, er sett fram í drögum að nýrri námskrá. Í kaflanum um rannsóknir er lýst fjórum greinum sem allar eru um tungumálakennslu á netinu t.d. samanburður á stað- og fjarkennslu, ný tækni, ipod til tungumálakennslu, rannsókn á samskiptaferli í gegnum fjarfundi og spjall og að lokum heimspekileg hugleiðing um þátt tækninnar í samskiptum og hlutverki tölvunnar í stað mannsins. Í lokaorðum dreg ég saman þann lærdóm sem ég, sem fjarkennari, hef fengið af lestri þessara greina og hvaða verkefni væri áhugavert að vinna í framhaldinu. Staðreyndir Status Quo Í kennslu erlendra tungumála er talað um fjóra færniþætti: tal, hlustun, ritun og lestur. Samkvæmt reglum á að sinna þessum færniþáttum jafnt og eru kennslubækur samdar með það í huga og samkvæmt staðli Evrópusambandsins. Færnisviðin eru kölluð A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, og C2 og má geta þess að þær kennslubækur t.d. í þýsku, sem kenndar eru hér í framhaldsskólum og taka yfir ÞÝS-103 og 203, þ.e. á fyrsta ári, eru á færnistigi A1. Nemendur, sem ljúka stúdentsprófi í dag, eru flestir á færnistigi A1 og A2 en sumir fara upp á færnistig B1. Mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneytið setti fram nýja námskrá fyrir framhaldsskóla sem á að vera innleidd 1. ágúst Þar er náminu skipt niður í fjögur þrep með nýjum færnimarkmiðum: hæfni, þekkingu og færni. Framhaldsskólar vinna að því að færa námsgreinarnar inn í þennan færniramma og laga að nýjum færnimarkmiðum. Áherslan er nemendamiðuð og ýmsir nýir þættir, svo sem sjálfstæð vinna nemanda, koma þar inn í og breyta hugsun og viðmiðunum í námsmati og skólastarfi. Í drögunum að nýrri menntastefnu stendur í Vinnuskjali mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneytisins nr um lykilhæfni í erlendu tungumáli: Lykilhæfni felur í sér að: geta hlustað á talað mál og skilið merkingu þess, geta tjáð sig á viðeigandi hátt um ólík efni bæði munnlega og skriflega, hafa trú á eigin málakunnáttu, geta tekið þátt í samræðum um almenn málefni og notað viðeigandi málfar og hljómfall, búa yfir fjölbreyttum orðaforða daglegs lífs, geta lesið texta á erlendum tungumálum sér til fróðleiks og ánægju, hafa skilning á málkerfi og eiginleikum erlendra tungumála, gera sér grein fyrir hvernig erlend tungumál eru lykill að margvíslegum samskiptum. Hér skáletraði ég það sem snýr að tali. Eins og sjá má er það drjúgur hluti af lykilhæfninni að geta tjáð sig og tekið þátt í samræðum. Þessum færniþætti er einnig gerð skil í vinnuskjali mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneytisins frá því í júní Þar segir eftirfarandi um færnimarkmið á 1. stigi í lærdómsviðmiði fyrir erlend tungumál:

7 MÁLFRÍÐUR 21 Nemandi skal hafa öðlast leikni/færni í að: skilja talað mál um kunnugleg efni þegar talað er skýrt og áheyrilega lesa ýmiss konar texta á eigin áhugasviði eða texta um kunnugleg efni og beita viðeigandi aðferðum eftir því hver tilgangurinn með lestrinum er hverju sinni taka þátt í almennum samræðum um efni sem hann þekkir eða hefur áhuga á og beita kurteisisvenjum, málvenjum og hljómfalli við hæfi segja frá á skýran hátt með því að beita (orðaforða) málvenjum, framburði, áherslum og hljómfalli á sem réttastan hátt skrifa samfelldan texta um efni sem hann þekkir eða hefur áhuga á og nota viðeigandi málfar fara eftir grundvallarreglum sem gilda um ritað mál nota upplýsingatækni og hjálpargögn í tungumálanámi Hér kemur aftur í ljós að talfærni er talin mjög mikilvægur færniþáttur en liðir 3 og 4 fjalla um hana. Liður 1 snýr að hlustun, liður 2 að lestri og liður 5 að ritun. Tungumálakennsla í 3ja tungumáli, þ. á. m. í þýsku, er algengust á tveimur fyrstu færniþrepunum í framhaldsskólunum. Einstaka skólar bjóða upp á 3ja færniþrep. Rannsóknir Í grein eftir Kimmaree Murday, Eiko Ushida og N. Ann Chenoweth, (2008, ) segir frá samanburðarrannsókn á jákvæðum og neikvæðum viðbrögðum kennara og nemenda við staðkennslu og fjarkennsluumhverfi við Carnegie Mellon University í Pittsburgh. Þessar rannsóknir voru framkvæmdar á árunum Nemendum, sem vildu gjarnan taka tungumálanámskeið en höfðu ekki tíma í stundaskrá, var boðið upp á fjarnám. Í lok tímabils var eftirfarandi skoðað: 1. Var munur á færni nemenda í staðnámi og fjarnámi? 2. Var munur á ánægju nemenda í staðnáminu og fjarnáminu? 3. Var munur á ánægju kennara sem kenndu í staðnáminu og fjarnáminu? Í ljós kom að færni nemenda var sambærileg hvort sem þeir voru í fjar- eða staðnámi. Það kom sérstaklega í ljós þegar fjarnemendur fóru inn í staðnámið. Varðandi aðra spurninguna kom ýmislegt í ljós. Nemendur voru óhressir í byrjun og kvörtuðu undan tækninni, einnig var meira að gera en þeir héldu. Frjáls vinnutími var ekki eins frjáls og þeir héldu í byrjun en það var meginorsök þess að þeir völdu fjarnámið. Fjarnámið var skipulagt þannig að það var skylda að eiga vikulega fundi með kennara eða hóp. Þar var talið æft og nemendur kynntust kennara og öfugt. Einnig var skylda að taka þátt í spjalli á ensku í 60 mínútur á viku. Nemendur í byrjunaráföngum kvörtuðu yfir spjall-þættinum því þeir höfðu lítinn orðaforða og höfðu ekki tíma til að hugsa innan tímarammans. Þessi fjarnámskeið voru blanda af stað- og fjarnámi. Eftirfarandi kom í ljós: a. Almenn ánægja var með fjarnámið hjá kennurum og nemendum b. Erfiðleikar voru í byrjun með tæknina c. Nauðsyn var á mjög góðu skipulagi, námið stóð og féll með því d. Tæknifærni kennara og nemenda skipti miklu máli e. Mannlegi þátturinn var ómissandi Þessi fjarkennsla var blönduð kennsla og kom ýmislegt fram sem var jákvætt fyrir bæði fjar- og staðkennslu: frjálsari tími nemenda, minni viðvera kennara, meiri ábyrgð nemenda, nákvæmara skipulag kennslunnar, fleiri möguleikar á framsetningu námsefnis, nauðsyn góðs leiðbeinanda. Höfundar lögðu í lokin áherslu á að mannlegi þátturinn væri ekki minna virði en sá tæknilegi. Nauðsyn væri á meiri þjálfun kennara og nemenda í fjarkennsluumhverfinu. Mannlegu samskiptin í tungumálanáminu skiptu jafnmiklu máli og tæknin. Talfærniþættinum var því sinnt í hverri viku með skyldumætingu á fjarfundi og með spjalli í 60 mínútur. Fernando Rosell-Aguilar, (2007, ) leitar að Podcasting-kennslufræði fyrir tungumálakennslu í grein sinni: Top of the Pods In Search of a Podcasting Podagogy for Language Learning. Þar segir hann frá stöðugri þróun tækja eins og ipod, iphone og itunes, sem mætti auðveldlega nota í tungumálakennslu, enda væri Podcast-kerfið auðvelt og fljótvirkt. Margir hafi fjallað um tungumálanám með hjálp Podcast en enn sé lítið til um kennslufræðilega skilgreiningu og kennslufræðilegar rannsóknir á tungumálakennslu með þessu kerfi og öðrum líkum. Rossel-Aguilar skiptir Podcast-efninu niður í tvo flokka: heil fullhönnuð námskeið, aukaefni og hjálp frá kennara. Hann gerir grein fyrir fyrstu háskólunum sem settu fram efni á ipod og itunes og afhentu nem-

8 22 MÁLFRÍÐUR endum tækin til afnota. Það var við Osaka Jogakuin Collage í Japan árið Síðan fylgdu stærstu háskólarnir í Ameríku á eftir, t.d. Duke, Stanford, Berkley og University of Michigan. Í dag eru tæki og spilarar eins og mp3 í mikilli notkun t.d. hér á landi. Rossel-Aguilar leggur áherslu á að þessi lærdómur sé nemendum kær og jafnvel ómeðvitaður og því um leið jákvæður. Tækin má nota hvar sem er, hvenær sem er. Þau eru flott hönnuð, létt og lítil og nær stöðugt í hendi eigandans, hluti af hans lífi, svo til ómissandi og þar með áhugaverð fyrir fræðendur. Hann vísar til Clark & Walsch, (2006), en þeir taka fram að kennslan fari miklu leyti fram með hljóðskrám og sé þannig sérlega aðgengileg fyrir lesblinda og lesskerta. Tæknin leyfi nemendum að setjast niður og slappa af og þeir fái þar með tækifæri til að hugsa og læra. Hlustun með heyrnartólum einangri einnig hlustandann og auki þar með á einbeitingu hans. Höfundur minnist á tvær gerðir nemanda, þá sem læra af því að hlusta og þá sem læra af því að lesa. Þarna er síðari hópnum mismunað að nokkru leyti. Höfundur telur upp nokkra kosti þessarar kennsluaðferðar og nefnir Sloan, (2005) og Kaplan-Leierson, (2005) en þeir halda því fram að þessi aðferð : styðji fjarkennslu styðji nám á eigin hraða sé hjálp fyrir hæga nemendur auki möguleika á aukaefni frá kennara hjálpi lesblindum og lesskertum og þeim sem hlusta frekar en að lesa auki möguleika á gestafyrirlesurum auki möguleika á að nota gestafyrirlestur fyrir fleiri námskeið auki fjölbreytni kennsluaðferða hjálpi nemendum sem hafa annað móðurmál (geti hlustað oftar) geti gefið svör (feedback) gefi kennurum möguleika á endurskoðun leiði til þess að nemendur geti sleppt fyrirlestrum sé viðbót við staðkennslu. Höfundur varar við gömlum kennsluaðferðum þar sem kennari er alvitur og kemur fram sem fyrirlesari en nemandi læri með því að hlusta og endurtaka. Hann nefnir tvö fyrirmyndarkerfi í Podcasting í tungumálakennslu en þau eru Chinese Pod og Japanese 101. Þar er lögð áhersla á: skýra skiptingu á færnimarkmiðum og innihaldi notkun á margs konar flytjendum, gömlum, ungum og frá mismunandi málsvæðum jákvæða og hressilega flytjendur aðeins 15 mín. flutning í hvert sinn að hægja á framburði þar sem nauðsyn er tengsl við menningu, stjórnmál, íþróttir og popptónlist fréttir skýra markmiðsetningu mikil og fjölbreytt hjálpargögn, t.d., málfræði, æfingar, glósur, opin svæði á netinu fyrir samræður (kaffihús) og fyrir umræður, upptökur og textar. Það er skoðun höfundar og margra í tungumálakennslu að tækjakunnátta fari ekki endilega saman við kunnáttu í kennslufræðum. Nauðsynlegt sé að samræðu- og samskiptaþátturinn gleymist ekki og að hann sé meginuppistaða í tungumálakennslu auk kennslu í uppbyggingu tungumálsins og menningarlæsi. Þróun tækninnar gengur hratt fyrir sig og tól og tæki verða sífellt þróaðri og ódýrari. Talþátturinn hefur því gífurleg tækifæri þar sem tenging kennara og nemenda með skjámynd getur farið fram hvenær og hvar sem er og með eða án undirbúnings. Í grein eftir Mirjam Hauck og Bonnie L. Youngs (2008, ) segir frá rannsókn sem gerð var 2004 í þremur háskólum, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh í Ameríku, Open University í Bretandi og Université de Franche Comté í Frakklandi. Þetta var rannsókn á samskiptaferli í gegnum fjarfundi og spjall sem náði yfir tíu vikna tímabil í gegnum fjarkennsluforritið Lyceum. Nemendur í Bandaríkjunum og á Bretlandi lærðu frönsku en í Frakklandi voru nemendur í ensku. Frönsku nemendurnir voru tilvonandi fjarkennarar, amerísku nemendurnir voru byrjendur í frönsku og frá Bretlandi voru fimm sjálfboðaliðar, nemendur á framhaldsstigi í frönsku. Sjö kennarar og 25 nemendur tóku þátt í rannsókninni og máttu 50% samskipta fara fram á móðurmálinu. Þetta átti að hrista hópinn betur saman og ýta undir samskipti. Kennarar undirbjuggu nemendur undir tölvusamskiptin þar sem nemendur áttu að bera saman sitt nánasta umhverfi, herbergi, hús, hverfi, frístundir og þess háttar. Nemendur áttu að hittast fimm sinnum á fjarfundi og nota bloggið til að undirbúa fundina eða almennt til að tala saman. Síðasta vikan var notuð til að meta verkefnið sem fólst í því að nemendur svöruðu spurningablaði. Í ljós kom að nemendur voru ánægðari með bloggið en fjarfundina en á blogginu var hægt að nota bæði tal, spjall og ýmis talmerki sem virtist hjálpa þeim nemendum vel sem ekki töluðu mikið. Rúmlega helmingi nemenda fannst hann ekki verða

9 MÁLFRÍÐUR 23 hluti af hópnum, það vantaði meiri tíma, fleiri fjarfundi, meiri samskipti kennara og nemenda og hóparnir voru of ólíkir (aldur og talfærni). Það kom greinilega í ljós að þátttaka nemenda var mjög bundin færni þeirra í tækninni, sérstaklega á fjarfundunum. Höfundur talar um að með þróun tækninnar og aukinni færni nemenda í fjarskiptum jafnist tungumálakennsla á neti fyllilega á við staðbundna tungumálakennslu. Breffini O Rourke, (2008, ) fjallar í grein sinni um heimspekilegt samspil tækninnar, samræðunnar, hugsunar og umhverfisins þar sem samræðan fer fram. Tölvan getur í raun aldrei orðið samtalsaðili, verður aldrei annað en tölva og verður að greina það samspil á þann hátt. Texti og spjall eru samskipti í gegnum tölvu og þess vegna ekki eins og venjulegt samtal tveggja persóna augliti til auglitis. Texti og spjall koma aftur á móti í staðinn fyrir samtal og greinist sem samtal í gegnum tölvu, þau eru samskipti, þ.e. samtal við aðra manneskju. Höfundur segir möguleikana hér mikla í tungumálanámi og kannski meiri en í staðbundinni kennslu. Spjall í fjarkennslu gefur nemanda eftirfarandi: yfirlit (look back) möguleika á að laga og endurbæta (review) möguleika á að endurtaka orð og orðasambönd meiri möguleika fyrir þá sem hafa sjónrænt minni mögulegan samanburð á setningum/skilaboðum hægari samskipti heildaryfirsýn möguleika á að vera eigin dómari first-person perspektive Til að rannsaka þetta ferli, sem nemandi fer í gegnum þegar hann notar spjall, segir höfundur frá rannsókn sem framkvæmd var á 34 enskumælandi nemendum sem voru að læra spönsku, frönsku og þýsku. Allir eyddu þeir 45 mínútum í spjall við aðila sem talaði viðkomandi mál sem móðurmál. Samræðurnar fóru að hálfu leyti fram á ensku en annars á viðkomandi tungumáli. Umræðuefnið var opið en gefin voru dæmi um efni til umræðu. Í tilrauninni var notaður svokallaður Eye tracker á enskumælandi nemendurna og vissu þeir af honum en urðu hans ekki varir á skjánum. Þarna er hægt að mæla tíma og vinnu nemanda við skjáinn og tengja við textann. Einnig var mæld einbeitni og athygli sem eru einmitt forsenda lærdómsferlis. Var því rannsakað hvað nemandinn sjálfur fer í gegnum þegar hann vinnur í spjall-ferlinu, svokallað first person perspective. Lokaorð Lestur þessara greina hefur sýnt mér að tal í fjarkennslu getur verið svo miklu meira en samtal tveggja aða fleiri í gegnum talforrit, skype, fjarfundi eða aðra möguleika netsins. Spjall í tungumálakennslu er nauðsynlegur hluti fjarkennsluformsins og styður tal-þáttinn í fjarkennslunni. Í grein O Rourke (2008) kemur einnig fram að spjall hefur nokkra yfirburði yfir tveggja manna tal einmitt vegna tölvunnar eins og sjá má í atriðunum hér að framan. Notkun þessa þáttar og samband við þær persónur sem tala sitt móðurmál eru atriði sem fjarkennarar þurfa að athuga. Kennarar eru ekki alltaf native speaker þótt þeir séu oft mjög færir í viðkomandi tungumáli. Tækniþátturinn er í öllum rannsóknum álitinn mikil hindrun í samskiptum, bæði hjá nemendum og kennurum. Tæknifærni, kennsla á forrit og skýr framsetning námsefnis er sérstaklega nauðsynleg í fjarkennslu. Það er nauðsynlegt fyrir nemanda að skilja tilgang verkefnanna sem sett eru fram og hvernig þau falla að heildarmynd námsins. Hvað er verið að æfa og hvers vegna og hvernig er það sett fram á fjarkennsluforminu. Í framhaldi af þessari vinnu væri áhugavert að gera rannsókn á því hvernig tal-þættinum er sinnt í fjarkennslu t.d. í stærstu fjarkennsluskólunum: Verzlunarskóla Íslands, Verkmenntaskólanum á Akureyri og í Fjölbrautaskólanum í Ármúla. Heimildaskrá: Hauck, M., Youngs, B. L. (Apríl 2008). Telecollaboration in multimodal environments: the inpact on task design and learner interaction. Computer Assisted Language Learning. Vol. 21, nr. 2, Routledge Taylor & Francis. Mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneyti. (2009). Vinnuskjal Reykjavík: Mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneyti. Sótt 8. desember 2009 af pdf. Mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneyti. (Júní 2009). Drög, Lærdómsviðmið. Erlend tungumál. Reykjavík: Mennta- og menningarmálaráðuneyti. Sótt 8. desember 2009 af Namskrargerd/laerdomsvidmid/. Murday, K., Ushida, E., Chenoweth, N. A. (2008). Learners and teachers perspektives on language online. Computer Assisted Language Learning, Vol. 21. Nr. 2, Routledge Taylor & Francis. O Rourke, B. (Júlí 2008). The other C in CMC: What alternative data sources can tell us about text-based synchronous computer mediated communication and language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, Vol. 21, nr. 3, Routledge Taylor & Francis. Roiselolo-Aguilar, F. (Desember 2007). Top og the Pods In Search of a Podcasting Podagogy for Language Learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, Vol. 21, nr. 5, Routledge Taylor & Francis.

10 24 MÁLFRÍÐUR Interculturality in the Language Classroom: Teaching Spanish in Iceland Pilar Concheiro Lourdes Pérez Mateos Pilar Concheiro is Adjunct teacher of Business Spanish at the University of Reykjavík and also collaborates with the University of Iceland as a teacher in the MA- studies in Spanish Teaching. She has been a teacher of Spanish as a foreign language for more than 10 years in different Universities in Spain and abroad. She is also a teacher trainer and has collaborated with Instituto Cervantes. Currently she is doing her PhD. research about applying new technologies to the teaching and learning of Spanish. Lourdes Pérez Mateos, B.A in Philology, has long worked in the teaching of foreign languages and in tourism in Spain and abroad. At present she is the head of the department of Spanish at Móðurmál, the Association of the teaching of second native languages for bilingual children in Iceland,where she has taught since This article came up as a result after all the discussions and debate generated among students during the course (Methodology of Spanish as a foreign Language) taught at the University of Iceland in February The Intercultural Communication Cross-cultural communication and negotiation skills are all about being able to deal with people from other cultures, people with a visibly different set of values, norms, traditions, and beliefs than those of one s own. Usually, the greater the distance between counterparts cultures, the greater the culture risk is, and therefore, so is the chance for crosscultural misunderstandings triggered by miscommunication. (Vlaiman, V. 2010) A language cannot be studied without taking the context into account. This is a statement which seems very clear today, but still according to some didactic material and some pedagogic perspective, culture was seen as an accessory to the learning process; accordingly, the didactic material designed was very far from the reality of the target language, kind of fake and gave the students a completely stereotyped vision of the reality. We must take into account that language and culture are inseparable because language is the main representation of cultural identity and we learn a language through its cultural manifestations. According to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, language students will have to be evaluated not just regarding their language skills but also to their intercultural competence of the language they are learning. We must prepare them to the current socio-political situation where mobility and international cooperation have become everyday issues. The better we prepare them the bigger success they will have in their approach to the new language and culture. We are no longer just language teachers, our role in the classroom is that of cultural mediators and part of it will be to guide our students to reflect on the similarities and the differences with their own culture, going beyond the stereotypes. We will make them be conscious about how the society they come from works in order to compare it with the one they are learning about. And we will teach them to understand, to accept and to respect those differences until they reach a balance between three parts: Knowledge (about other cultures, people, nations, behaviors ); Empathy (understanding feelings and needs of other people) and Self-confidence (knowing what I want, my strengths and weaknesses, emotional stability). It is very important to understand that being fluent in a language does not mean to know all the grammar rules and use them properly or being able to write a text without any spelling mistakes, it also means that we want to be perfectly understood in every context. To achieve that goal, we must know the sociocultural context of the target language in order to apply the right strategies to

11 MÁLFRÍÐUR 25 prevent our communication act becoming a failure. The intercultural interference We know very well that an extremely important part of our work is to correct our students when they make a linguistic mistake but an emphasis should also be placed on the importance of the adaptation to the context in order to avoid to what is known as a pragmatic interference. According to Escandell (1995:99) a pragmatic interference is produced when those who are learning a language apply the behavior patterns from their own culture to the new one. I have been teaching Spanish as a foreign language for more than 10 years in universities in Spain and abroad and I have experienced myself and through my students countless cases of intercultural interferences. I specially remember two of them. The first one happened when during a summer course at the University of Santiago de Compostela, a student from the United States asked me if he could meet me to ask me some questions about grammar, I told him he could come to my office a mediodía. The next day, he told me that he had been waiting for me for one hour and I was not there! The misunderstanding was due to the fact that the student applied his concept of midday or noon to the Spanish culture where mediodía refers to the lunch time hours between 2 and 3 in the afternoon. The consequence of this failure in the communication process was the student s frustration and a negative image of the teacher. The second case also happened during a summer course in Spain. One of my colleagues whose cigarettes were finished, decided to ask one of my Japanese students if she could have one, of course he offered her one but she could see that it was the last one of the package. In the Spanish culture when we refuse an invitation, we expect that the other person offers it again, but my student did not know this and you should have seen my workmate s face when she politely refused it ( thanks, but it s your last one, I can t take it ) and while he answered ok, no problem, he put his packet of cigarettes again inside his pocket instead of insisting again but, please, take it as a Spanish person would have done. Still today the socio-pragmatic mistakes caused by the lack of intercultural competence are not considered to be as relevant as any grammar mistake. However, if a non native speaker does not use the right rule for the past tense, the communication will not be affected and the message will be understood, on the other hand if he or she makes a mistake regarding how to show respect or politeness through the language, his/her personal image will be damaged. Approaching Intercultural Differences Between Spain and Iceland When you personally get to know two cultures, in this case Spanish and Icelandic, one can see clear differences in social customs, habits and beliefs, between them. This is based on my own experience and observations of Icelandic society and its customs, after living in Iceland for more than 5 years. This is also supported by the different opinions of many Icelanders, friends, colleagues and students, based on their personal encounters with the Spanish country and culture as well as, on the point of views of many Spanish-speaking people whom I have known personally in Iceland, through my experience as a Spanish teacher for bilingual children at the association Móðurmál, and as the head and founder of El Caldero (the group of Spanish-speaking parents in Reykjavík). Some relevant issues to be pointed out in the teaching of Spanish as a foreign language in Iceland 1) Typical tips such as the differences in timetables in daily life, opening and closing times for shops, offices, etc. 2) Socio-historical divergences for instance the fact that Iceland is traditionally a matriarchal (led by women) society whereas Spain is a patriarchal one, and the consequences that this entails. 3) Breaking typical stereotypes and misconceptions about Spanish people and Spain itself as a country. When thinking of Spain s weather Icelanders thoughts usually drift towards hot sunny days and a blue sky, but Spain is a vast country and has a very diverse climate. In the central inland regions it can get very cold in winter, sometimes even more than in Iceland. On the contrary to what most Icelanders think, not all Spaniards dance flamenco, like bullfighting, eat paella and drink sangria on a regular basis. Those are typical Spanish stereotypes that emerged in the 50s as part of promotional campaigns in the tourist boom period in Spain, and are not general symbols of the whole

12 26 MÁLFRÍÐUR nation, which has undergone profound changes in the last 60 years. 4) Contrasts between Spanish and Icelandic communication styles Spanish people are more talkative and speak more loudly, sometimes so much that it seems that they are all shouting at each other and arguing instead of talking. Several people may speak at once. They often interrupt each other anticipating the closure of the utterance and the conclusion. This can be an unpleasant experience for an Icelander and considered as impolite or chaotic, but for a Spaniard, it merely means that the person is interested in what one is saying. On the other hand, silence is charged with negative meanings of indifference or mistrust. Similarly the Spanish see the importance of gaze as a signal of sincerity and attention towards the interlocutor. Regarding body language, Spanish people, compared to Icelanders, also express themselves with more face and hand gestures which are commonly used to strengthen a verbal message. Moreover, Spaniards are very tactile in communication, when talking they can touch your arm or slap your back to emphasize something said. In their informal encounter with Spanish natives, Icelanders have to be prepared and get used to cheek-kisses (or rather a pair of delicate brushing of the cheeks starting with the left) when introducing, meeting, or congratulating. In general, in these situations, men and women would kiss and women also would kiss women. Men normally shake hands, though men kissing may occur particularly between close friends or relatives. The concept of personal space is also very different, the distance between two people who are just standing and talking, tend to be shorter and this may make Icelanders feel uncomfortable. 5) The expression of feelings and self-image is also very different in the two cultures. Self-confidence and patriotism of Icelanders, proud of their heritage, are quite noticeable to foreigners here in Iceland. But the most general and common rule in Spain is to display modesty and simplicity, avoiding excessive signs of patriotism. After a personal compliment such as Your blouse is beautiful, an Icelander would appreciate it and say takk (thanks) but a Spaniard would unconsciously diminish the compliment by adding a sentence that downgrade it ( I bought it at.. and it didn t cost much ) or return it with something kind to say to the other person ( your dress is also very nice ). The Spanish are very liable to make compliments to their friends and to the passer-by. Talking about crosscultural differences in the course of Methodology of Spanish as a foreign Language, an Icelandic student commented that she felt very ashamed when many Spanish people addressed to her as guapa (literally beautiful), thinking that it was a personal comment, until she realized that guapa is commonly used as a mere joyful greeting to a woman. Most of Icelandic women had also noticed that Spanish men are not shy of showing their admiration of female beauty on the street by using piropos (a flirtatious compliment) unlike Icelanders, who are not so open to express their feelings, and they strictly preserve the right of others to privacy. Spaniards are more emotional and tend to express any kind of emotion, even at work, and it is even expected to ask about the mood or privacy of others as a sign of interest. 6) The concept of politeness is not the same in the two countries. Iceland is a society based on individualism. Independence and self-sufficiency are very important: Children are raised to be independent from an early age and everyone is expected to look after him/herself and her/his immediate family only. Spain, in comparison, is a society based on collectivism in which people see themselves strongly integrated into a group, where all the members are group-dependent. Just to mention one example, the value of sharing has an immense relevance in Spain, and this can be reflected in the custom of paying bills when drinking or eating out with friends. In Iceland the custom is that each person pays for himself or herself, rather than any one person paying for anyone else, unless the invitation stated otherwise. In most places of Spain it is common to take turns to pay the bill or to split it regardless of what anyone ate or drank. As a result in Spain at restaurants the waiter by default will come with the total bill, if you want to get separate bills you should request it in advance. In Iceland people generally call each other by their first names even in formal situations, but in Spain, where hierarchy and rank are very important, it is normal to address people using titles according to their gender, marital status, professional occupation, academic position, or diplomatic / military rank. In formal writing, rules are stricter in Spanish than in Icelandic. In Spanish spoken in Spain the personal pronoun Usted (a polite you) is specifically used to demonstrate respect to strangers, older people, authority figures, or in business. Furthermore, in Spain por favor (please) and gracias (thank you) are thought to be unnecessary among relatives and friends, or its lack in everyday exchanges in shops and restaurants is not considered impolite.

13 MÁLFRÍÐUR 27 Conclusion The list of cultural variants is endless and further and more extensive studies would be required. The aiming of this brief approach is to prompt attention to the need for the involvement of teachers of Spanish in the design of specific teaching materials for their learners. Therefore such materials must certainly include intercultural contrasts among the different Spanish-speaking countries and Iceland, still one of Europe s least known countries. Teachers will have to act as cultural bridges between two societies in order to minimize any possible cultural shock to their students. Bibliography Escandell,M. Victoria (2006). Introducción a la pragmática. Ariel, Barcelona. Sercu, L. with Bandura, E., Castro Prieto, P., Davcheva, L., Laskaridou, Ch., Lundgren,U., Méndez García, Mª del C., Ryan, P. (2005). Foreign Language Teachers and Intercultural Communication. An international investigation. Clevedon: MultilingualMatters. Vlaiman, Vlad (2010). Tímarit. Háskólans í Reykjavík. Reykavík. Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða Nýstárleg útgáfa af Hrafnkels sögu þar sem fléttað er saman sögutexta og ýmsum áhugaverðum upplýsingum sem gerir ferðalag á söguslóðir bæði auðvelt og spennandi. Hrafnkels saga er með þekktari Íslendingasögum og hefur hróður hennar borist langt út fyrir landsteinana. Auk sögutextans sjálfs er í bókinni að finna ítarefni sem varpar ljósi á samfélagsmynd sögutímans. Þá hafa verið unnin ítarleg kort sem gera lesendum og ferðalöngum kleift að glöggva sig nánar á staðháttum, hvar söguskilti og gönguleiðir er að finna og hvernig best megi haga ferðum með tilliti til áhuga, getu og langana þeirra sem leggja upp í ferð um söguslóðirnar. Kort og gönguleiðir Brautarholti Reykjavík Sími

14 28 MÁLFRÍÐUR De forsvundne point eller hvordan en ministers ord kan få magisk virkning Pétur Rasmussen. Pétur Rasmussen er dönskukennari við Menntaskólann við Sund. Historisk forklaring Alle gode forklaringer på mærkelige hændelser er historiske: For op imod 10 år siden besluttede vores undervisningsminister at det skulle være slut med at udskrive studenter der var 20 år. Gymnasiet skulle være 3-årigt som i andre europæiske lande. En af mulighederne man havde der, var ministerens mageløse opdagelse, nemlig at timetallet i grundskolen var vokset ganske betragteligt. Af den grund burde ca. første semester i ungdomsuddannelserne være indlært i grundskolen. Ergo kunne man betragte mindst 12 point i islandsk, dansk, engelsk og matematik som indlært allerede. Man iværksatte et arbejde, og i 2005 udkom det nu hemmelige dokument: Aðalnámskrá framhaldsskóla, Erlend tungumál, Tillögur. I det er de gamle moduler DAN103 osv. forsvundet. De nye moduler DAN103 osv. svarer i sværhedsgrad til de gamle DAN203 osv. Så kom ministeren på kollisionskurs med Lærerforeningen, og de forholdsvis klare linjer for en ny læseplan for ungdomsuddannelserne blev afløst af tåger og selvstyre. Nu er tågerne ved at lette, vi skal undervise efter en ny læseplan til efteråret, og så viser det sig at ministerens ord har fået magisk virkning i mellemtiden. Ministeriet hævder at ungdomsuddannelserne skal tilrettelægges som om de 12 point i grundskolen er indlært. Situationen i dansk Den nye læseplan for ungdomsuddannelserne adskiller sig på to måder fra tankerne fra 2005: For det første har skolerne igen fået frihed til at udforme deres læseplaner efter eget ønske, for det andet er der kommet nye normer fra Bruxelles for beskrivelse og evaluering af aktiviteter og elevers kompetencer. Begge dele er bestemt positive. Vi står blot med et problem: Vi skal kende startkompetencerne. Og det gør vi ikke. Spørger man fx Menntasvið Reykjavíkur om nye og øgede krav til elevers kompetencer i dansk, mødes man med undren. Der er intet sket siden Jo, Námsgagnastofnun har ladet udarbejde nye undervisningsmidler til dansk, men deres forhold til normerne fra Bruxelles er udefineret. Spørger vi os selv i ungdomsuddannelserne, må vi vist indrømme at vi ikke har bemærket en højnelse af standarden hos de elever vi får ind, bestemt ikke i en sådan grad at vi kan skrotte Dansk er mange ting fordi eleverne nu kan læse tekster af den sværhedsgrad. Vi ved at der er sket det at Samræmt próf i dansk er afskaffet, og at vi dermed står over for en karaktergivning fra skolerne som har et ukendt forhold til kompetencekravene fra Bruxelles. Vi står egentlig med et sæt ubrugelige karakterer og undervisningsmaterialer i grundskolen der helt klart ikke opfylder de krav vi må stille, hvis vi skal opfylde de krav der stilles til os. Kravene til ungdomsuddannelsen i dansk Kravet til afgangskompetencer i dansk for boglige linjer må svare til EQF-niveau 2 hvis vi skal kunne hævde hvad vi hidtil har: at vores elever, afhængig af karakter i faget, er i stand til at indskrive sig på et dansk (nordisk) universitet i en dansksproget uddannelse uden først at bestå en prøve i dansk, sådan som studerende fra andre europæiske lande skal. Dette må være et ufravigeligt krav til en studentereksamen i dansk. Med et konstant faldende time-

15 MÁLFRÍÐUR 29 tal i dansk over 50 år er det krav stadig mere truet. Vi som fagligt ansvarlige dansklærere kan ikke uden sværdslag opgive det. Vi må også som fagligt ansvarlige gøre dette forhold gældende over for danske og nordiske myndigheder. Vi kan ikke sidde med skoser fra aftagerinstitutioner om at vi ikke gør vores job, og vi kan frem for alt ikke være medskyldige i at man i andre nordiske lande spilder undervisningsresurser på islændinge der ikke reelt opfylder optagelseskravene. Livet kunne være simpelt for rektorerne over praktiske uddannelser. Der havde man jo kun krav om DAN103, og det forsvinder, så nu er man fri for at tænke på elevernes kompetencer i dansk. Det har grundskolen taget vare på, eller hvad? Ja, der er jo lige det med videreuddannelse i Danmark. Skal vi sende eleverne til Den Store Danskprøve i Danmark hvis de vil videre? Eller skal vi tilbyde dem et valgfrit kursus til niveau 2? Konsekvenser Første krav må være at vi skaber sikkerhed for at afgangskompetencerne i dansk for grundskolen relateres helt klart til EQF-niveau 1. Hvis vi på et enkelt modul skal kunne udskrive på niveau 2, må eleverne opfylde kravene til niveau 1, inden vi modtager dem, ellers må vi have mulighed for at placere dem i 0-moduler eller langsom-moduler på fagligt forsvarlig vis. Det er vel også rimeligt at ministeriet spørger grundskolerne hvad de har brugt de mange ekstra timer til. Kort sagt: Bedre kontrol med grundskolene. Andet krav må være at vi får bevillinger til at oprette støttemoduler efter behov. Det må være lysende klart efter det foreliggende at kun elever med 8 eller højere i dansk fra grundskolen under de nuværende omstændigheder kan fortsætte direkte på det nye DAN2A05 som må blive navnet på det modul der erstatter DAN203. Alle andre skal have særbehandling. Tredje krav må være at der på praktiske ungdomsuddannelser tilbydes et modul svarende til DAN2A05 for dem der vil læse videre i et nordisk land. Fjerde krav må være at undervisningsministeriet over for undervisningsmyndigheder i andre nordiske lande erklærer at kun elever der har opnået EQF-niveau 2 i dansk kan optages direkte på videregående uddannelser. Deutsch vom Feinsten Dieser Titel ist unter auch als ikrimi für ipod Touch/iPhone erhältlich. Prüfungstraining DaF-Krimis Willkommen in der Welt des Lernens

16 30 MÁLFRÍÐUR HVAÐ ER Í GULLAKISTUNNI? Tungumálakennarar á öllum skólastigum! Nýtum gullið tækifæri í kreppunni og njótum góðs af því að alþjóðleg námstefna NBR, undirfélags Norðurlanda og Eystrasaltsríkjanna í alþjóðasamtökum tungumálakennara FIPLV sé haldin á Íslandi þetta árið. Fjölmennum á námstefnuna sem verður haldin í Verslunarskóla Íslands og í Viðey dagana júní Eflum okkur í starfi með því að deila þeim aðferðum sem okkur hafa reynst notadrýgstar í skólastofunni og heyrum af reynslu annarra í þeim efnum. Nánari upplýsingar og skráning á heimasíðu STÍL: Ljósmynd: Ragnar Th. Sigurðsson. Film ab! auf Deutsch Filmserie für Lerner ab 13 (Ende A2 bis B2) 13 Folgen à 25 Min. unterteilt in mehrere kurze Episoden mit Übungen, Untertiteln in Deutsch oder Englisch und Karaoke-Funktion In werden vier attraktive junge Leute zusammengewürfelt und erleben Romanzen und Krisen im vertrauten Milieu einer Sitcom. Man sieht sie bei der Arbeit und in der Freizeit sie amüsieren, verlieben, trennen und streiten sich manchmal alles an einem Tag. Schritte international DVD Fünf unterhaltsame Geschichten zu Band 1 und 2 (Niveau A1). Für die didaktische Aufbereitung stehen auf der DVD Arbeitsblätter im PDF-Format zur Verfügung. extr@ auf Deutsch 2 DVDs mit Begleitheft ISBN Schritte international DVD (PAL) ISBN DVD (NTSC) ISBN Hueber Verlag Kundenservice Tel. +49 (0)1805/ Fax: +49 (0)89/ kundenservice@hueber.de Anzeige-A5quer-extra+Schritte-int.indd :47:09 Uhr

17 t ungumál Allar hljóðbækur Námsgagnastofnunar eru aðgengilegar til niðurhlaðs af Evrópsk tungumálmappa Sådan Adventure Island of English Words Skoðið gagnvirka vefi á Krakkasíðum og Unglingasíðum Námsgagnastofnunar vertu skrefi á undan Write right God Bedre Best Think about it Við hvetjum alla sem hafa áhuga á því námsefni sem er í boði fyrir grunnskóla að skrá sig á póstlista Námsgagnastofnunar til að fá sendar tilkynningar um allt nýtt efni sem kemur út. Language Master Verbatim Play with English Language Master Spell Gagnvirkt efni Á Krakka- og Unglingasíðum Námsgagnastofnunar er gagnvirkt efni í flestum námsgreinum. English poetry Iceland in English God nok på nettet! Námsgagnastofnun Víkurhvarf Kópavogur Sími

18 CONTACT US FOR YOUR FREE OALD 8 INFORMATION PACK & SAMPLE COPY OFFER! NEW 8TH EDITION Iceland Ad.indd 1 25/1/10 15:00:42

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