Running Head: Learning Styles NORTHWESTERN STATE UNIVERSITY. A Review of Learning Styles SUBMITTED TO DR. AUGUSTINE AMENYAH

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1 Running Head: Learning Styles NORTHWESTERN STATE UNIVERSITY A Review of Learning Styles SUBMITTED TO DR. AUGUSTINE AMENYAH IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE COURSE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF ADULT EDUCATION EDAE 5730 FALL 2007 BY: ROBERT (CHRIS) HARE, CISSP, CISA, CISM DATE: October 21, 2007

2 A Review of Learning Styles 2 Running Head: Learning Styles Learning Styles When considering the learning styles presented by Cranton, it is important to examine the definition of a learning style. Cranton (2000) defines a learning style as a preference for certain conditions or ways of learning. An understanding of learning styles and preferences through various inventories like VARK, the Productivity Environmental Preference Survey and others is essential to educators because [w]hen an instructor's style matches a student s learning style, that student typically experiences greater satisfaction and a more positive attitude toward the course (Santo). While Cranton (2000) presents David Kolb s theory as a learning style, it is more a learning theory than a style (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2007). Kolb s theory revolves around work original developed by John Dewey and Kurt Levin (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2007), consisting of a cyclic learning model with four stages. The stages are Concrete experience (DO); Reflective observation (OBSERVE); Abstract conceptualization (THINK); and, Active experimentation (PLAN). The list above includes a keyword representing the specific focus for the stage (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2007). One important point Cranton does not mention in her coverage of Kolb s work is how a learner can start the cycle in any specific stage, but must continue in the cycle to the stage following their start point. The

3 A Review of Learning Styles 3 initial learning stage in Kolb s cycle is Concrete Experience (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2007). Each stage has a specific set of abilities (Cranton, 2000) which each learner will rely upon as their preference within a given learning stage. The abilities as outlined by Cranton are Convergers; Assimilators; Accomodators; and Divergers. These form the learning styles in Kolb s theory. Learners focus on one as their learning preference at a given point in time. Examining each of the styles provides the view shown in Table 1. Table 1 - Kolb's Learning Styles (Cranton, 2000) Convergers Assimilators Accomodators Divergers Abstract conceptualization Active experimentation Abstract conceptualization Reflective observation Concrete experience Active experimentation Specific, concrete solutions Considered unemotional Prefer ideas or things over people Like ideas and models Uninterested in application of theories Learn by experience Considered adaptable Prefer a trial and error approach Concrete experience Reflective observation Like to generate ideas Prefer working with people Want to explore all the options An alternative to Kolb s learning theory was proposed by Dunn and Dunn in 1977, where their focus was on the environmental conditions the learner preferred instead

4 A Review of Learning Styles 4 of different ways of learning. Dunn and Dunn s research identified four learning conditions: Immediate environment; Sociological needs; Physical needs; and, Emotional aspects. These environmental considerations emphasize how learners preferred to structure and define their ideal working or learning environments. Table 2 lists the primary needs for each of the conditions: Table 2 - Dunn and Dunn Learning Conditions (Cranton, 2000) Immediate Sociological Needs Physical needs Emotional aspects Environment Sound Light Temperature Design Working with peers, alone, small or large groups Food, drink Degree of mobility Time of day Motivation Persistence Responsibility Degree of structure May prefer instructorlearner or peer relationships Grasha and Reichmann, focusing on social interaction concerns, developed the third learning style presented by Cranton. Their work led to the development of the Student Learning Styles Scale for measuring the preferences of college and high school students in interacting with teachers and other students (Santo). Cranton (2000) identifies six dimensions, but does not identify the relationship between the dimensions. The dimensions and their relationships as identified by Santo are listed in Table 3.

5 A Review of Learning Styles 5 Table 3 - Grasha and Reichmann Social Interaction Dimensions (Cranton, 2000) Competitive Collaborative Avoidant Participant Dependent Independent Collaborative Competitive Participant Avoidant independent Dependent Learning is viewed as competition Must win Prefer to share ideas Classroom is social environment Not interested in course material Prefer to not participate Like material Take responsibility Learns only what is required Likes authority Likes direction Likes to work on their own Learns content they view as important Aside from these learning styles, the style inventory by Conner, and other similar tools are also important to consider. Learning styles are important to the learner because it can help them identify how they learn and choose learning settings which are effective for them (Cranton, 2003). For example, students who prefer to learn by doing (kinetic) and acquiring information through facts and less from theory (Jung s Sensing vs. Intuitive preferences) would not have their learning preferences immediately satisfied in a completely theory based course. However, as mentioned previously, when the educator is using a style which is the same as or similar to a student s preference, they will listen and work harder than when their styles are vastly different as explained by Santo: A major mismatch between instructor style and learners' styles can lead to trouble. For example, suppose that learners prefer independent work and reading, but the instructor prefers group projects. Never rely totally on any one method, but try to vary them. If a student does not seem to be learning, consider whether his/her learning style might be at odds with your teaching style. Remain flexible

6 A Review of Learning Styles 6 and be able to change planned learning activities if students are having trouble in a given area. Cranton (2003) also presents the concepts or learning styles based upon Carl Jung s research into personality. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MTBI) is likely the most well known personality measurement tool based upon Jung s work. What is relevant here is how Jung, and subsequently Myers and Briggs identified a series of related preferences for deriving energy, collecting information, making decisions, and living (Hirsh, Kummerow, 1998). The dichotomies in Myers and Briggs work on type are evident in the learning styles discussed by Kolb, Dunn and Dunn and Grasha and Reichmann. The preferences in the student s and educator s personality type can have a profound impact on how they interact with others, prefer to collect information, make decisions, and organize their lives. Type has a natural and predictable difference in learning styles and student response to teaching methods (Myers, Myers, 1995). Using Jungian psychology, Myers points out that students who are intuitive have a much easier time learning to read than sensing students because of how their natural preference affects the translation of the written symbols into meaning. While the specific nature of the entire Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is beyond the scope of this report, the nature and impact of these personality types affect every aspect of the student and educator relationship both in and out of the classroom.

7 A Review of Learning Styles 7 References Cranton, P., Planning Instruction for Adult Learners. Wall & Emerson Inc, Toronto, 242 pp. Cranton, P., Finding Our Way A Guide for Adult Educators. Wall & Emerson, Toronto, 273 pp. Fleming, Neil (2007). Using VARK with Others. Retrieved October 6, 2007, from VARK - A Guide to Learning Styles Web site: Hirsh, S.K., Kummerow, J.M., Introduction to Type in Organizations. CPP Inc., Mountain View, 32 pp. Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2007, October). Experiential Learning (Kolb) at Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved October 19th, 2007 from Myers, I.B., Myers, P.B., Gifts Differing. Davies-Black Publishing, Mountain View, 228 pp. Santo, S. Learning Styles and Personality at University of South Dakota. Retrieved October 19th,