FINANCING TERRORISM: A NEXUS FOR NATIONAL SECURITY. A Master Thesis. Submitted to the Faculty. American Public University. Gerald A.

Transcription

1 FINANCING TERRORISM: A NEXUS FOR NATIONAL SECURITY A Master Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of American Public University by Gerald A. Kleyer In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts December 2012 American Public University Charles Town, WV

2 The author hereby grants the American Public University System the right to display these contents for educational purposes. The author assumes total responsibility for meeting the requirements set by United States Copyright Law for the inclusion of any materials that are not the author s creation or in the public domain. Copyright 2012 by Gerald A. Kleyer All rights reserved. ii

3 DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my family. Without their patience, understanding, support, and most of all love, the completion of this work would not have been possible. iii

4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank my professors throughout my coursework for their patience, support, and gentle guiding that has both motivated me and built my confidence in my abilities to complete this degree with excellence. I have found my coursework through the Strategic Intelligence program to be challenging and providing me with tools to enhance both my current and future goals. iv

5 ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS FINANCING TERRORISM: A NEXUS FOR NATIONAL SECURITY by Gerald Arthur Kleyer American Public University System, December 21, 2012 Charles Town, West Virginia Professor Dr. Robin Thompson, Thesis Professor As the world grows smaller through globalization, there are expanded economic opportunities for many citizens of the globe. Organized crime organizations, including terroristic groups, use these opportunities to traffic narcotics and deny basic human rights to other individuals. The purpose of this study, through the examination of statistical and historical data, is to explore the links between human trafficking, smuggling, and selling of narcotics and terrorism in an effort to understand how and why these links translate into a threat to United States national security. This study used a qualitative exploratory research design that focused on the comparative analysis of operations of human trafficking networks, drug smuggling networks, and international terrorist organizations. Suggestions for government leaders include taking the time to understand the links between human trafficking, drug trafficking, and terrorist organizations to create and implement policies to defeat terroristic actions that threaten our nation s security. v

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS FIGURES... ix ABBREVIATIONS... x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION... 1 Background of the Problem... 2 Statement of the Problem... 5 Purpose of Study... 7 Significance of Study... 7 Research Questions... 8 Theoretical Framework... 9 Assumptions Limitations Summary CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Documentation Literature Review Narcotics Smuggling and Combating Policies Human Trafficking and Combating Policies Summary CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Research Design Appropriateness of Design Research Questions vi

7 Data Collection Data Analysis Validity and Reliability Summary CHAPTER 4: RESULTS Content Analysis of UNDOC Report Drug Trafficking Drug Trafficker Characteristics in Afghanistan Drug Trafficker Characteristics in Colombia Human Trafficking Human Trafficking Characteristics of Afghanistan Human Trafficking Characteristics of Colombia Content Analysis of Documents Drug Trafficking Afghanistan Narcotic Operations and Policies Colombian Narcotic Operations and Policies Human Trafficking Afghanistan Human Trafficking Operations and Policies Colombian Human Trafficking Operations and Policies CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The Problem Literature Review Analysis Methodological Approach vii

8 Implications of Findings Research Questions What links are present in Afghanistan narcotic operations and terrorist organizations? What links are present in Colombian narcotic operations and terrorist organizations? What links are present in Afghanistan human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations? What links are present in Colombian human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations? How do U.S. national policies rationalize, justify, change, or not change the links between human trafficking, drug smuggling, and terrorist groups? Significance and Implications Recommendations Future Research Areas Summary REFERENCES viii

9 FIGURES Figure 1. Drug trafficking involvement in Afghanistan population Figure 2. Gini index for Figure 3. Victims of trafficking Identified by gender in Afghanistan Figure 4. Victims of trafficking by exploitation type in Afghanistan Figure 5. Victims of trafficking identified by gender in Colombia Figure 6. Victims of trafficking identified by exploitation type in Colombia ix

10 ABBREVIATIONS AUC: CIA: DEA: ELN: FARC: FBI: GDP: INSCR: IOM: TIP: TVPA: UN: UNDCP: UNICEF: UNODC: USAID: United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia Central Intelligence Agency Drug Enforcement Agency National Liberation Army Revolutionary Armed forces of Colombia Federal Bureau of Investigation Gross Domestic Product International Narcotics Control Strategy Reports International Organization for Migration Trafficking in Persons Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act United Nations United Nations International Drug Control Programme United Nations Children s Fund United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime United States Agency for International Development x

11 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION During his address to the nation following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States, former President Bush coined the phrase war on terror (Bush 2001). However, terrorism is nothing new. The first form of terrorism dates back to the 1st through the 14th century AD, when Zealots of Judea practiced assassination against Roman forces and those who chose to support them (Terrorism Research Center 2011). The basic premise of terrorism has remained the same but the methods have evolved into plots that are more sophisticated. The extraordinary level of sophistication brings with it a high price tag. Terrorist organizations require large amounts of funds to carry out their attacks. In the past, governments provided the necessary funding to these terrorist organizations and in return, the terrorists would carry out attacks on government-sponsored targets. Over time, the terrorist organization ideologies have changed and the state-sponsored financial support decreased. Funding terrorist activities have now become a large problem for the organizations. Human trafficking is the 21st century word for a devilish industry that dates before the foundation of the United States and, in fact, helped the United States build the strongest country in the world. However, today s human trafficking involves not simple slave labor in the fields and sweatshops to produce cheap clothing, but includes smuggling women and children across borders for the sole purpose of filling the needs of the worldwide sex industry (U.S. Department of State 2005). In 2000, the U.S. State Department estimated that over 700,000 people were smuggled across international borders, many of which relying on false hopes of a better life (U.S. Department of State 2005, 6). Once arriving at a final destination, the smuggled people were involuntary sent into servitude and forced to work in brothels, construction sites, plantation fields, or sweatshops (U.S. Department of State 2005). For the purpose of this study, human

12 2 trafficking involves adults, children, and the movement or detainment of these persons. A clear definition is: The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of threat or use of other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs. (U.S. Department of State 2005, 4) Many of the illegal crime organizations that partake in human trafficking are also involved with other illicit activities to include the smuggling and selling of narcotics. Drug trafficking is one of the most financially lucrative illegal enterprises worldwide. In 2011, the global narcotic enterprise earns an estimated 394 billion dollars every year (U.S. House 2011, 1). To combat the lucrative narcotic industry, the United States, in cooperation with the international community, developed and continues to develop strategies in order to eliminate the narcotics business. As stated earlier, terrorist organizations and their plots are more sophisticated and require additional money to finance. Indications and evidence is mounting that terror organizations such as the Taliban link directly to harvesting and processing narcotics as well as the trafficking of persons (IOM 2008; Lacouture 2007; United States 2012). Background of the Problem Understanding the complexities with human trafficking, narcotics smuggling and their relationships with the new generation of terrorists, requires an investigation of the history of each element. Human trafficking is as old as civilizations themselves. Great cultures like China, India,

13 3 and ancient Mesopotamia grew from slave labor not originating from within their own borders (Masci 2004). North and South America were not immune to the appeal of using slaves for labor. Due to the decimation of the South American indigenous population from disease, foreign slaves, mainly from Africa, were imported to rebuild the country. These activities continued from the 1500 s through the 1800 s, involving not just South America, but the North as well (Masci 2004). It was not until the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the creation of the 13th Amendment that slavery became illegal in the United States. Ever so slowly, other countries began to follow suit, making slavery and human trafficking against the law. Today, all nations agree that owning people in any capacity is morally wrong and have formed international agreements and treaties to support their views (Masci 2004). If this had been truly the end of slavery and human trafficking, the world would be a much better place. Unfortunately, the demand for sex and cheap labor combined with poverty and turmoil, mainly in third-world countries, has driven human trafficking to all time highs. Over a million men, women and children are sold and bought annually, making human trafficking the third most lucrative illegal activity behind arms and drugs (U.S. Department of State 2005; Allred 2005, 63-72). In the case of human trafficking, laws, agreements, and treaties along with the increasing demand for young beautiful prostitutes and cheap labor drove the human trafficking trade to be rampant. In recent years, governments and international organizations have brought human trafficking to the forefront of the public s eye in attempts to eradicate its existence (Allred 2005, 63-72). Human trafficking delivers large amounts of money to illicit organized crime syndicates that finance other illegal activities, just one avenue for these organizations to finance their illegal acts. Smuggling and selling drugs is another lucrative proposition.

14 4 While the illegal drug trade does not have the same long history as human trafficking, what it lacks in history it makes up for in violence and impact on global society. Drug use and abuse has been around for thousands of years but until the 19th century, the use of drugs remained in their original state. During this period, England used opium to combat trading inequalities with China. Britain used cultivation and transportation routes from India to China. The Chinese Emperor understood the affects opium created on society. The Emperor attempted to curb the abuse of opium by confiscating all opium imports. As it seems, the power of drugs, even during the 19th century, were insurmountable (Zheng 2003). The lure of opium and its wealth overwrote the negative affects it was having on Chinese society. Dockworkers and local government officials received kickbacks to continue the trade of opium into China until the early 1900s. By this time, nearly 25 percent of the Chinese male population was actively using opium (Zheng 2003). At the turn on the 19th century, addiction staked a new claim within the United States. A German pharmaceutical company, by the name of Beyer, introduced heroin to the United States as a non-addictive replacement for morphine, despite the two drugs being derivatives of opium (McCoy 2003). Once the United States government learned more about the opiate drugs created by Beyer and the addiction caused by using these drugs, the government enacted laws making it illegal to make or consume the drugs. As the demand for the illegal drugs increased following World War II, the attractiveness of the profits in selling the products worked its way into organized crime organizations (McCoy 2003). Despite the increasing demand on drugs in the United States, it was not until the 1960s that the use of illegal drugs, including hallucinogenic and marijuana, occurred in epidemic proportions. As the demand for drugs increased, a drug war waged between organized crime organizations. Mafia organizations from France, Italy, and more

15 5 recent Central and South America, fought and continue to fight for drug dominance (McCoy 2003). Statement of the Problem As the world grows smaller through globalization, there are expanded economic opportunities for many citizens of the globe. For the majority of these people the increased prospects enhance their economic plights. Unfortunately, increased economic prosperity has not led to a greater life for every individual. Organized crime organizations, including terroristic groups, use these opportunities to traffic narcotics and deny basic human rights to other individuals. Although both narcotic trafficking and human trafficking is not a new phenomenon, the increased worldwide competition has intensified the demand for cheaper goods and services. This demand has increased the need for the supply of lower labor costs and service providers. Although the data on human trafficking is quite limited and estimates widely vary, in 2005, over a half a million victims were smuggled across international borders, nearly 20,000 of those making their way into the United States (U.S. Department of State 2005). The exact amounts of income obtained from these illicit activities are nearly impossible to obtain. However, human trafficking approximately nets an estimated income of 9.5 billion dollars per year, third to the smuggling and selling of arms and narcotics (Allred 2005, 63-72). Illegal drugs are marketable in every corner of the world. With a constant and continually growing demand, drugs are one of the most reliable sources of income. The international narcotics industry also represents a lucrative and problematic illegal endeavor. The estimates of incomes from these activities also vary greatly and ranges from 100 billion to more than one

16 6 trillion dollars per year (U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service 2011, 3). While the role of drugs and human trafficking funding terrorism is contradictive to Islamic tenets, the unlimited source of profits highlights special justifications. Greed, corruption, hypocrisy, and willful blindness among bankers, financial institutions, and to some extent lawmakers and law enforcement all over the world have made the enormous profits easy to launder and hide. Conducting terrorist attacks, even on a small scale, takes large amounts of financial backing. Terrorists do not file tax returns on their activities, however, it is estimated that it cost as much as a half million dollars to conduct the 9/11 attacks. Standard operating costs for these organizations can include training, intelligence collection, travel, and recruitment that would require a budget of over 30 million dollars per year (U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service 2011, 31). Current international policies have crippled the ability for donations to the groups and these entities now require untraceable funding. The illicit criminal activities of human and drug trafficking provides the substantial amounts of untraceable financing needed. This research study focused directly on identifying the relationships and connections between terrorist organizations and the criminal activities of narcotic and human trafficking. The reality is that the extensive continuum of drug and human trafficking offenses by terrorist groups directly impacts United States national security because of the influence it has on worldwide stability and the ability to undermine global trade, industry, and financial markets. If unchecked, the sheer magnitude of reach and global ramifications provide valuable lessons from other nations efforts to confront this transnational problem.

17 7 Purpose of Study The purpose of this study, through the examination of statistical and historical data, is to explore the links between human trafficking, smuggling, and selling of narcotics and terrorism in an effort to understand how and why these links translate into a threat to United States national security. The first phase of the study identified, defined, and provided a historical background of human trafficking, narcotics trafficking, and terrorist organizations. The second phase of the study explored the connection of terrorist organizations and both human and drug trafficking operations. The final phase identified, defined, and linked positive and negative contributions to combating the threat terrorist organizations, human trafficking, and drug networks have on national security. The global nature of the problem required a limitation in the study. During the second phase, the researcher conducted case studies limited to operations by organizations in Afghanistan and Colombia. The themes generated from the analysis of the case studies provided a broader understanding of the global instances contributing to the links between the variables. Significance of Study Human and drug trafficking is not a recent phenomenon. A look back through history shows that the movement of people for the purposes of slavery and other forms of exploitation has been around for centuries. The contemporary era has provided operations that are more sophisticated but the problem remains the same. The key criminal activities of concern for the security of the United States are those associated with the operations of terrorist groups. It is of

18 8 vital importance that the United States recognizes any connections of human trafficking networks, drug trade organizations, and terrorist groups. Historically, law enforcement has dealt with drug trafficking and terrorist activities as two separate issues. In the aftermath of 9/11, these entitles became entwined. Whether it is a state or narco-terrorist organization, the connection between human trafficking, drugs and terrorism is dangerously apparent. Advances in technology, finance, communications, and transportation in the industries have fused terrorist organizations and the profits into an elaborate web of wide-reaching illicit activities. Furthermore, the context of globalization requires a broader approach to security by the United States. This broader approach requires not only the collective security of the nation, but also the security of every individual. This approach will require a consideration of the impacts of human trafficking and drug networks with terrorist organizations on individual human security. With a clear understanding of the threats to security by these concepts, proactive steps to alleviate the threats will become apparent. This study attempts to bring to light the need for further research in both arenas and the need to create policies that protect both national and human security. Research Questions This study used a qualitative research design that focused on the comparative analysis of operations of human trafficking networks, drug smuggling networks, and international terrorist organizations (Creswell 2009). The focus of the initial research question was an exploration of how the terrorist groups, human trafficking, and narcotics smuggling were linked. During the

19 9 explorative stages of the research, additional questions emerged that focused the study of the data. The following questions include the initial question that guided the investigation. The sub-questions further developed the comparative data analysis. Central question: How do U.S. national security policies affect the ability of terrorists to use human trafficking and narcotic smuggling as means to finance their terrorist operations? Sub-questions: 1. What links are present in Afghanistan narcotic operations and terrorist organizations? 2. What links are present in Colombian narcotic operations and terrorist organizations? 3. What links are present in Afghanistan human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations? 4. What links are present in Colombian human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations? 5. How do U.S. national policies rationalize, justify, change, or not change the links between human trafficking, drug smuggling, and terrorist groups? Theoretical Framework This exploratory research aimed to understand what makes human trafficking and the drug trade profitable for terrorist organizations, considering the demand, risks, costs, and profit margins and consequently how to remove the powerful incentive and disrupt the link with terrorism. In order to accomplish this goal, the study focused on trafficking at an organizational level. This included a comprehensive description of the economic and social organization of

20 10 human trafficking operations, narcotic enterprises, and terrorist organizations. This theoretical approach used comparative modeling to compare and contrast human trafficking and narcotics smuggling enterprises (Clark 2010, 63). The case study further dissected and analyzed each criminal enterprise individually, and compared it to current U.S. and international policies. The researcher conducted a pattern analysis to identify the causal links between entities (Clark 2010, 63). The identified patterns between human trafficking, drug smuggling, and the policies designed to combat them highlight national security threats. For instance, if earlier policies were making unknowing positive impacts on either human trafficking and/or drug smuggling and the policies were changed, the research can highlight the positive impact. The researcher conducted simultaneous comparative analysis during the pattern analysis to evaluate and compare statistical data on the policy effectiveness. Assumptions The purpose from the beginning of the trafficking operation is to profit from the exploitation of another human. Based on the study of human trafficking networks, the research assumes that the main goal of traffickers is to earn the highest amount of profits. A corollary assumption is that the purpose of the narcotics industry is the appeal for large profits. The research assumes the large profits obtained in the narcotics industry by terrorist organizations has made human trafficking appealing as the next generation funding for terrorist organizations. Human trafficking in and of itself is an important human rights concern, much research assumes it does not constitute significant threats to national security. Drug trafficking is largely

21 11 assumed to be a social issue. However, this research assumes that it is these drug and human trafficking networks, exploitation of the networks, and the links between them and terrorist organizations that pose heavy security implications for United States national security. The research assumes that these connections with corrupt governments, law enforcement, and terrorist organizations provide easy access to profits with minimal changes to normal operations and increasing the ability to conduct terrorist operations. Limitations The research focused on the security implications of human trafficking networks. Inherent to this concept is the understanding that this network is an organized crime group. To address the security implications of human trafficking for the United States, it is necessary to examine human trafficking as it occurs, whether by an organized or individualized network. The same limitations are present for the narcotics industry. The implications of criminal involvement and the trafficking operations invariably affect the relations between armed organizations in states and society. However, the criminal nature of the activities limits thorough investigation of the intrinsic relationships. Literature about the actual interworking operations of human trafficking networks and drug industries is limited. Surveys, field research, and personal interviews are next to impossible in most instances due to the dangerous, secretive, clandestine, and illegal nature of the subjects. Courageous journalists rather than academics have conducted nearly all of the field research. A secondary content analysis of global surveys conducted by the United Nations (UN) and the

22 12 International Organization for Migration (IMO) was able to add to first-hand accounts to identify characteristics of the illicit players. The initial data sampling limitations extended to this study. The confidential nature of the cases also poses a limitation from the organizations involved or state officials protecting national security. This has also identified a great deal of bias in the research. To avoid bias, a cross validation of the literature was required. Summary This chapter provided an overview of human trafficking, the drug industry, the connections with terrorist organizations, the purpose of the research, and described the study of each organization and the effect on United States national security. The study was significant as it provided a detailed examination of terrorist organizations in two countries and the links to criminal activities in human trafficking and the drug industry to fund operations. Leaders in governments can use this information to craft, combat, and eradicate the funding provided to terrorist organizations and protect national security. Chapter 2 will provide a literature review pertinent to the study and reveal the results of previous research linking human trafficking, the drug industry, terrorist organizations, and policies in place to combat the difficulties.

23 13 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE Chapter 1 provided an overview of the problem and the qualitative research study. The study used a structured, focused comparison of operations of human trafficking networks, the drug industry, and terrorist organizations. It further identified and comparatively analyzed the effects of governmental policies on these operations. The study ultimately sought to understand how and why the organizations are connected and policy requirements to eradicate the problem. This chapter provides an overview of historical perspectives of narcotics smuggling, policies to combat narcotics, human trafficking, and policies to combat this problem. Documentation The approach to this study requires comparative analysis of massive amount of data to highlight the causal relationships between the variables. Based upon the research method chosen, the literature review will focus on a qualitative approach. The purpose for this approach to the review is to establish the meaning of the phenomenon from participant behavior using ethnography (Creswell 2009). The literature review includes major topical searches of the following databases: ProQuest, EBSCOHost, Strategic Defense/Security Studies, and Colombia International Affairs Online (CIAO) online database. The keywords used in these searches were a combination of the following words or phrases: human trafficking, terrorism, drug trafficking, narco-terrorism, and government policies. The research also conducted a search of documents with various governmental agencies such as the UN, Department of Homeland Security, the Department of State, Terrorism Research Center, and the United States Congress. Additionally,

24 14 the researcher reviewed book collections from the local public library and the university to identify books relevant to the topic at hand. Literature Review To understand the complexities with human trafficking, narcotics smuggling and their relationships with the new generation of terrorists, investigation of the history of each is required. This chapter provides an overview of narcotics smuggling and policies to combat the criminal enterprise of the drug trade. The second section of the review addresses the historical background of human trafficking and the policies in place to eradicate the problem. It is an imperative limitation that there is a lack of research pertaining to actual operations of criminal enterprises. Many government documents remain classified in nature to protect national security. The clandestine nature of the entities and enterprises do not publish the business models of their organizations. However, while there are limited academic research sources, research studies conducted by government agencies have examined these causal links. Taking into account the bias that can occur in government produced research; this research study adds knowledge to the limited pool of academic research connecting the criminal activities of terrorist organizations. Narcotics Smuggling and Combating Policies Drug use and abuse has been around for thousands of years but until the 19th century, the use of drugs remained in their original state. During this period, England used opium to combat

25 15 trading inequalities with China. Britain used cultivation and transportation routes from India to China. The Chinese Emperor understood the affects opium was having on society. The Emperor attempted to curb the abuse of opium by confiscating all opium imports. As it seems, the power of drugs, even during the 19th century, were insurmountable (Zheng 2003). The lure of opium and its wealth overwrote the negative affects it was having on Chinese society. Dockworkers and local government officials received kickbacks to continue the trade of opium into China until the early 1900s. By this time, nearly 25 percent of the Chinese male population was actively using opium (Zheng 2003). At the turn on the 19th century, addiction staked a new claim within the United States. A German pharmaceutical company, by the name of Beyer, introduced heroin to the United States as a non-addictive replacement for morphine, despite the two drugs being derivatives of opium (McCoy 2003). Once the United States government learned more about the opiate drugs created by Beyer and the addiction caused by using these drugs, the government enacted laws making it illegal to make or consume the drugs. As the demand for the illegal drugs increased following World War II, the attractiveness of the profits in selling the products, worked its way to organized crime organizations (McCoy 2003). Despite the increasing demand on drugs in the US, it was not until the 1960s that the use of illegal drugs, including hallucinogenic and marijuana, occurred in epidemic proportions. As the demand for drugs increased, a drug war waged between organized crime organizations. Mafia organizations from France, Italy, and more recent Central and South America, fought and continue to fight for drug dominance in the US (McCoy 2003). The origin of these illegal drugs is imperative in analyzing the interaction with terrorist organizations.

26 16 The International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) is an annual report generated by the United States Department of State in accordance with guidance mandated by the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 and subsequent amendments (U.S. Department of State 2012). This report provides the United States President information necessary to identify specific countries, in accordance with guidelines set, considered major drug-transit or illicit drug producing countries. Based on pre-existing agreements and policies established these countries could diplomatically be forced to take active rolls in reducing its nation s manufacture and transportation of illegal substances. Despite a decrease in overall narcotic production in some countries, there has been a steady increase in other countries, essentially halting any gains made (U.S. Department of State 2012). To the lay individual the effect of the steady increase equals enormous amounts of money making its way to criminal syndicates, reinforcing the slogan that crime does in fact pay. In recent years, this trend has sparked the interest of other criminal organizations, with motives beyond the simplistic money making theology. The level of assistance or reprimands is dependent on the level of involvement and the nature of the problems facing a specific country. For instance, a country known for cultivating and production of illegal substances on a grand scale, such as Afghanistan, will be dramatically different from a country such as El Salvador, who does not produce illegal drugs but merely provides a primary route for transit based on its geographical location between Guatemala and Nicaragua (U.S. Department of State 2012). Challenges for each example are different and requires different levels of outside involvement. The example of El Salvador may require increased funding and support to combat the transporting of illegal substances, whereas Afghanistan is a major global contributor of cultivating, processing, and exporting illegal drugs (U.S. Department of State 2012). The INCSR provides a detailed report by country of individual

27 17 milestones and a determination of met or not met policies. The report further details the level of increased support or actions (positive or negative) required for countries not meeting milestones. This series of reports provides detailed assessments for the last ten years and allows policy assessments on a historical basis. As the research continued its path, an interesting byproduct emerged, narco-terrorism. Narco-terrorism is when terrorist organizations use drug cultivation, processing, and distributing to fund their terroristic activities (Dolan 2005). United States laws have defined narco-terrorism but the definition is continually evolving. The roots of this entity stem from Peruvian President Fernando Belaunde Terry coining the phrase narco-terrorism in During its infancy, the definition for narco-terrorism was simple: the union of the vice of narcotics with the violence of terrorism (Thomas 2009, 1886). Despite its clear definition for nearly three decades, the phrase is now transitioning to organizations that directly threaten the United States and its security. The Taliban was the governing body for Afghanistan in the late 1980s and into the 2000s. The Taliban s senior leader issued a decree that opium production in Afghanistan would stop. This ban seemed productive in reducing Afghanistan s opium production. In 2001, the UN Office of Drugs and Crime supported the claim (McCoy 2003). It was not until the war started that opium production in Afghanistan grew expeditiously. The Taliban controlled the majority of opium production and this provided the needed additional funding to support the fight against the United States (Dolan 2005). Despite the increase in control and the reduction of Taliban fighters, the United States focus has been eradication of the Taliban and not the reduction of opium production. Therefore, the production and distribution of opium has maintained steady levels since the start of the war in 2001 (United Nations 2012). This relationship between narcotics and terrorism is not limited to Afghanistan.

28 18 During the same time the war in Afghanistan was beginning, organizations like the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the National Liberation Army (ELN), and the paramilitary United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) were making their presence felt in South America (McCoy 2003). Despite billions of dollars making its way to the Colombian government to fight against narco-terrorist groups, expand economic stability, and preserve basic human rights, the illegal drug production and dissemination ballooned. After A'lvaro Uribe took office negotiations between the Colombian government and opposition forces collapsed (Dolan 2005). Funding by the United States was making its way to Colombian counternarcotic units in the form of training, military-style, and construction equipment. American funded aircraft sprayed herbicide across coca fields, while simultaneously assisting local farmers in growing new products (Dolan 2005). Policies, distribution of aid, and spraying local farms had unforeseen consequences. The rapid spraying and killing of local crops and aid not getting to intended recipients created discontent with local Colombians. The farmers who lost all means for livelihood turned to the FARC and other terror groups as a means to survive. With diplomatic efforts and funding showing little signs of reducing coca production throughout Colombia and an increase of anti-western sentiment, the narco-terrorist organizations will continue to thrive in this area of the world. The examples provide glimpses into counternarcotic operations in Afghanistan and Colombia (Dolan 2005). It is important to realize that even the best intentions can end up counterproductive if not thoroughly researched to understand the implications and effects. The evidence provided highlights a substantial relationship between narcotics and terrorism. With noteworthy evidence of the relationships between the entities apparent in the research, the effectiveness of policies to combat the problems need analyzed. The UN and its

29 19 policy makers have joined forces with the United States in order to combat narcotics on multiple fronts. The UN and its partners are creating innovative initiatives to fight narcotics and the effects on the populace. However, without the reviewing and modifying of pre-existing policies and partnerships to identify what policies currently work and those that do not there will be no positive gains in the efforts. This research will create benchmarks, allowing impacting policies to continue. Ineffective or not efficient policies require elimination or change to enhance the effectiveness of all policies. The 2012 World Drug Report is an annual report, providing estimated statistics on the production and selling of illegal substances as well those who choose to use them. For example, the report identifies successful and unsuccessful activities for countering money laundering. The common theology is reducing or eliminating the transferring of funds flowing to the growers and harvesters and providing financial subsidies to farmers (UN Office on Drugs and Crime 2012). The influx of money for legal crops will change the products grown by farmers. The UN understands that each country partaking in the growing and production of illegal drugs are unique. They have determined after years of experience that policies that work for areas such as South Asia may not work in other areas like South America. The data provided shows a shift in demand for illegal drugs from Western countries to developing countries throughout the world (UN Office on Drugs and Crime 2012). The analysis reveals that this shift is dependent on several factors. The first being the urbanization of developing countries, with expanding populations of an alarming rate providing increasing levels of disposable incomes. Other factors for the shift in demand for drugs are socioeconomic and sociocultural related (UN Office of Drugs and Crime 2012). A country with high unemployment and higher inequalities will have an increase of illegal substance users and abusers. The findings in this report suggested

30 20 that by providing treatment to some or all abusers of drugs worldwide would drastically reduce the demand for drugs. Drastically reducing the demand for narcotics will significantly influence the market for illegal drugs. The global treatment for substance abuse is not without cost. Treating individuals who are dependent on drugs will cost an estimated billion dollars (UN Office of Drugs and Crime 2012). This price tag may be too much for some smaller developing countries to afford. As a direct response to the 9/11 attacks on United States soil, the Patriot Act was set into place. At inception, the sole purpose was to make it easier to obtain information related to national security. The Patriot Act was reauthorized in 2005 and with it a narco-terrorism statute (Thomas 2009). Under this new statute, the United States made it legal to prosecute members of foreign nationality in United States Federal court. In the first case to test the statute, a grand jury indicted José María Corredor-Ibague and nine other FARC members for engaging in acts of terrorism against the Colombian government and U.S. persons residing in Colombia. Additional charges include controlling secret airstrips funneling hundreds of kilograms of cocaine across the border into the United States (Thomas 2009). This case is one of four prosecuted under the narco-terrorism statute and cements both the relationship between terrorism and narcotics as well as the United States dedication in eliminating the two entities on a global scale. Despite the head-on approach to terrorism and narcotics smuggling, there are growing concerns that the definition of narco-terrorism is so broad that United States citizens civil liberties are threatened (Thomas 2009). Narco-terrorism has varying definitions that closely relate to the defining government or international organization s missions. The meaning of narco-terrorism thus loses the initial intent. This could potentially lead to the arrest and indictment of an individual or organization where the nexus between terrorism and narcotics are

31 21 not accurate or clear. There are also concerns regarding legislation and policy for the common user of drugs. For the majority of users there is no direct link to terrorism but because of the statute, a loose connection can be traced from the user, to the trafficker, and continue further to the organizations that meet the true definition of narco-terrorist (Thomas 2009). Human Trafficking and Combating Policies The evidence of the connection between narcotics smuggling and terrorism is numerous throughout the current literature. This leads to the exploration of human trafficking as a potential funding mechanism for terrorists. Human trafficking is as old as civilizations themselves. Great cultures like China, India, and ancient Mesopotamia used slave labor not originating from within their own borders (Masci 2004). North and South America were also not immune to the appeal of using slaves for labor. Due to the decimation of South American indigenous population from disease, the countries brought foreign slaves mainly from Africa to build the country s infrastructure. These activities continued from the 1500 s through the 1800 s, involving not only South America, but also the North as well (Masci 2004). It was not until the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the creation of the 13th Amendment that slavery finally became illegal in the United States. Ever so slowly, other countries began to follow suit, making slavery and human trafficking against the law. Today, all nations agree that owning people in any capacity is morally wrong and have formed international agreements and treaties to support their views (Masci 2004). In coercion with the United States Department of State, in 2000 the United States Congress drafted legislation and put into law the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection

32 22 Act (TVPA). The provisions of this law mandate the United States Department of State to produce an annual report describing the nature and extent of severe forms of trafficking in persons (U.S. Department of State 2012, 2). The report further investigates each country to determine whether government efforts are in existence to minimize or eradicate trafficking. The TVPA outlines specific measures (minimal standards) that each country must make in order to continue making progress. The annual Trafficking in Persons (TIP) report measures progress or lack of progress using a tier ranking system. As described in the report, the definitions for each Tier are below. Tier 1 - Countries whose governments fully comply with the TVPA s minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking. Tier 2 - Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA s minimum standards but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards. Tier 3 - Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA s minimum standards and are not making significant efforts to do so. (U.S. Department of State 2012, 40-41) Within the guidelines of the TVPA, there are special considerations when leniency and/or tier rankings are discarded (U.S. Department of State 2012). For example, Somalia has special considerations because of the economical and political turmoil within its borders. Special considerations can range from no tier ranking and/or limited economical or political retribution against those countries. There are potential severe penalties for countries with a Tier 3 ranking that may include economic sanctions, and the reduction or elimination of economic and humanitarian aid. Clear examples of human trafficking further identify new areas of concern, trends, and the evolution of human trafficking to combat the global efforts to eradicate it (U.S. Department of State 2012). The report identifies areas where countries can make progress and guidance on implementing efforts to eradicate the trade, such as work place inspections. The 2012 TIP report

33 23 highlights inspecting certain businesses with an environment that is ripe for child exploitation or debt bondage (U.S. Department of State 2012). Solid guidance provided to interviewers implementing inspections helps produce accurate results. These include identifying physical or emotional abuse that reduces effectiveness. Building confidence with potential victims is required for a proper assessment by interviewers. This may require multiple inspections and the need for individual dedication. A common trend throughout the annual report identifies trouble areas where progress is difficult if not impossible. Developing and poor countries, such as India or Thailand, show little signs of progression because of their lack of economic stature (U.S. Department of State 2012). Although most countries can pass legislation and laws to combat human trafficking, being economically limited in enforcement will slow, if not halt, progress on eradicating the problem. Patterns and trends of countries that continue to grade low on the tier system and efforts are unsustainable is a pillar in the quest of identifying ill-equipped policies to combat human trafficking or identify policies that have shown progress. Any government report should constantly be scrutinized and thoroughly reviewed to ensure its validity and the TIP Report constructed by the United States Department of State, with its implications and potential global impact, should be no different (Gallagher 2011). Reports have the potential of being wrongfully used in advancing foreign relations or placing political pressures against countries not directly related to human trafficking. The background of a report, its relationship to other laws and policies, and areas where a report s legitimacy can be improved or verified are integral in interpreting the validity of a government report (Gallagher 2011). A brief overview of the history and reasons behind the TIP report s production as well as the evolution in which the report has progressed from its modest beginnings into the overarching

34 24 form of today specifically the methods in which data is collected should be highly dissected to ensure lawfulness (Gallagher 2011). The sources cannot come from non-governmental sources because countries who affected by the ratings could feed inaccurate information. There are countries that would love nothing else but to inject misinformation or skewed data into the report to receive a higher tier rating than warranted. This alone would jeopardize the report s global acceptability. Despite the extent of regulations and procedures made to ensure the report s legitimacy, there are nations and organizations that still question its data collection methods and do not like the fact that the United States has the supervisory role in enforcing stiff penalties when warranted (Gallagher 2011). As the TIP reports gain international support and recognition for legitimacy, the easier it will become to enforce the stipulations and global compliance. It will not be compliance by force but simply because it is the right thing to do. Summary This review identified literature relevant to the relationships between narcotics smuggling, human trafficking, terrorism, and the policies in place to combat them. This study sought to understand the connection, if any, between narcotics smuggling, human trafficking, and the funding of terrorist organizations. The possible interconnection between these independents is a potential threat to United States national security. New or adjusted governmental policies to combat all three entities will keep the nation safe from terroristic threats. Over time, the reliance on certain commodities, such as drug and human trafficking, has inclined certain non-state organizations to prioritize economic incentives over cultural and religious views. The long-standing tradition of narcotics cultivation has become a key source of

35 25 income for opportunists who exploited the demand and benefited financially from it. The organizations sought new sources of funding as state sponsorship of terrorist organizations decreased. Unlike firearms or diamonds, the drug supply is consumable and in need of continuous renewal (UN Office of Drugs and Crime 2012). This provides an unending flow of funding for criminal organizations and now terrorist organizations. The same supply and demand theory pertains to human trafficking. Human beings inherently want to better their opportunities for wealth, freedom, and happiness. Human trafficking does not merely happen because of this vulnerability to exploitation. The demand for cheap labor, services, or sexual acts drives the industry and thus the opportunity for vast income availabilities for the suppliers. The policies identified in the research focused efforts on the supply activities of the terrorist organizations. It is essential to address the demand factors of both criminal exploitations for any government policy to be successful. Chapter 2 provided an overview of the historical background of human trafficking, drug trade, terrorist organizations, and the policies in place to combat the patterns between the entities. This study sought to understand how policies affect the relationships and learn why some policies eradicate the links and some do not. The next section provides a detailed look into the research methodology of the study.

36 26 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY This research design is both a case study and as a literature-based policy content analysis to assist in gaining a better understanding of the highly controversial narco-terrorism and human trafficking phenomenon. The first phase of research consisted of structured review of the operations of human trafficking networks, terrorist organizations, and the drug industry to identify the patterns between the entities. The second phase of research consisted of secondary content analysis of data received from UN global surveys on human trafficking and drug trafficking. The final phase of research compared the operations of each group with the current policies to determine the indications of positive or negative effects on identified patterns. The previous two chapters presented the background of the problem, the purpose, the nature of the study, the importance of the study, and reviewed related literature. Chapter 3 provides an examination of the methodology used to conduct the research. The specific areas include an overview of the research design, appropriateness of the design, the data collection procedures, the validity and reliability of the method, and a description of the data analysis technique. Research Design This study will use a qualitative exploratory approach. The research will begin with a working definition of human trafficking, narcotic smuggling, and terrorism. By defining the problem, it will better prepare further research of each area. To understand where the United States stands today in combating human trafficking and drug smuggling, a historical reference

37 27 point will need to be established. Examination and analysis of past policies is required to determine effectiveness. By comparing the policies at a given historical reference point and comparing it to the illegal activities during the same period, a determination can be identified as to the effectiveness of policies. This comparative analysis is systematic through specific turning points in chronological history. Based on the research and comparative content analysis, recommendations on whether or not current policies need to stand fast, amended policies need to be reenacted, or if fresh new policies need to be implemented. The bulk of the research is from sources within United States government, international, and regional organizations, built to combat these illegal activities. Biases are evident from every organizational study or material based on annual governmental budget restraints or financial backing by independents. Identifying these biases up front ensured they would not negatively affect the research or analysis (Creswell 2009). Case studies come from the qualitative mind-set. Qualitative methods focus on interpretive analysis of data collected through both communication and observations (Creswell 2009). In a typical case study, data-collection methods such as interviews, questionnaires, and observations combine to analyze the situation. The case study can provide a bigger overview of the problem, especially when there is a humanistic or real-life content to the problem. Case studies, as many qualitative methods, differ from the quantitative methods in that they use inductive reasoning to focus on the uniqueness of the situation instead of a standardized analysis (Appelbaum and Patton 2003). To gain the most effectiveness from a case study, researchers must select a hypothesis from a literature review, use strict data collection approaches, and apply clear analytical methods to the collected data.

38 28 The researcher inferred a theory from a policy statement within the National Security Strategy of the United States. The illicit trade of human beings, sex, or drugs corrodes social order; bolsters crime and corruption; undermines effective governance; facilitates the illicit transfer of weapons of mass destruction and advanced conventional weapons technology; and compromises traditional security and law enforcement (U.S. National Security Council 2011, 6). This policy statement framed the theory that security implications may result from the relationships between human and drug trafficking with terrorism focusing on the types of operations and the networks used in the operations. The research first determined the causal relationships among the organizations and the human and drug trafficking networks. It then examined these relationships in relation to the current effectiveness of policies to eradicate the criminal enterprises. Exploratory research yields information to explore either problems not clearly defined or unclear scopes (Creswell 2009). The first phase of research conducted used a secondary content analysis of UN global surveys to identify the characteristics of human and drug traffickers, victims, and terrorist organizations. The second phase conducted used a content analysis of academic and government documents to identify patterns between the characteristics of drug trafficking networks, terrorist organizations, and human trafficking networks. Finally, document reviews using the keywords of economic status, education level, victim, and perpetrator provides a code to analyze the networks. The first step in the research was to develop the working theory about security implications from human and drug trafficking. The theory is that human and drug trafficking networks have connections with terrorist organizations thus being a security threat to the United States. This theory stemmed from current U.S. policies and previous research about the topics.

39 29 The context and environment within which human and drug trafficking has developed rapidly in some countries is imperative in understanding the threat. Some common factors for the criminal activities are widespread poverty, a weak state government, and a high level of corruption. These factors make states vulnerable to terrorist networks and drug cartels within their borders (U.S. National Security Council 2011, 10). The next step was the selection of the cases studied. Based on readings about United States national security, the researcher identified the selection of the cases. From a cursory survey of the readings, it is clear that terrorist organizations currently pose the most significant threat to the United States. Based on the high levels of identified illicit activities, terroristic operations, and the widespread poverty, weak governments and corruption that increased the probability of finding links between human trafficking, drug trafficking and terrorist organizations, Afghanistan and Colombia are the target countries of research. The third step for the research was the collection of data about each of the cases with a focus on locations, methods of operations, and characteristics of traffickers and victims. Data about the operations of the networks and terrorist organizations was limited due to the surreptitious actions involved. The surveys completed by the UN provided access to the limited sources of criminal players. Close inspection was required to achieve an accurate data sampling. There was a large amount of data collected and analyzed in an effort to narrow the research to organizations and players with involvement in trafficking operations and terrorism. This allowed the researcher to gather detailed information in each phase, categorize the information, and then compare with existing literature (Creswell 2009). Analysis of the collected data aimed toward identifying trends in each of the cases. The trends in motives and operations determined the variables to compare the structures of the two

40 30 cases. This comparison rested on document review using keywords to identify any patterns or themes between the operations, organizations, and United States policies. Analysis of the characteristics of human traffickers and drug runners used a secondary content review of surveys conducted by the UN over several years. The research concluded with interpretations about the effectiveness of policies to combat and eradicate the problem using first-hand accounts from players in the illicit industries. Appropriateness of Design A qualitative exploratory study was appropriate because the research first had to identify and describe the specific characteristics of human trafficking, drug trade networks, and terrorist organizations. Then, using another data collection and content analysis, the research wanted to explore current United States policies to understand the ramifications on the links between terrorist organization funding from human and drug trafficking enterprises. The research design enabled the researcher to gather detailed information, categorize it and offered the best method to accomplish the study goals (Creswell 2009). The secondary content analysis of data from UN surveys was the most appropriate design to use in the first phase of the study. The purpose of using secondary content analysis fulfilled the needs of addressing a sensitive area of research and accessing a research population that was elusive (Creswell 2009). The original data obtained by the UN included statistics from criminal justice and victim s assistance databases in over 155 countries. The researchers are in harm s way interviewing victims, suspected traffickers, and country officials (UN Office on Drugs and Crimes 2009). In this case, the secondary content analysis of the statistics was appropriate, as the

41 31 intent of the data was to identify and explore similar or dissimilar characteristics of human traffickers, drug smugglers, and trafficking victims as a reference during the remainder of the phases. Research Questions This study used an exploratory research design that focused on the comparative analysis of operations of human trafficking networks, drug smuggling networks, and international terrorist organizations. The focus of the research questions was an exploration of how the terrorist groups, human trafficking, and narcotics smuggling were linked. During the explorative stages of the research, additional questions emerged that focused the study of the data. The following questions include the initial question that guided the investigation. The sub-questions further developed the data analysis. Central question: How do U.S. national security policies affect the ability of terrorists to use human trafficking and narcotic smuggling as means to finance their terrorist operations? Sub-questions: 1. What links are present in Afghanistan narcotic operations and terrorist organizations? 2. What links are present in Columbian narcotic operations and terrorist organizations? 3. What links are present in Afghanistan human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations? 4. What links are present in Columbian human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations?

42 32 5. How do U.S. national policies rationalize, justify, change, or not change the links between human trafficking, drug smuggling, and terrorist groups? Data Collection The researcher collected data on the typical method of operations for human trafficking networks, drug trafficking networks, and terrorist organizations. The researcher used librarybased research to gather government reports, scholarly journals, and historical data on all organizations and operations involved. To gain an understanding of the global nature and threat of human trafficking, drug trafficking, and terrorist organizations, the data collection included information about these cases throughout the world and then sorted according to the region of the world where the activity occurred. The researcher conducted further sorting to identify two regions with high instances of activities and current policies in place to combat the problems. However, the transnational nature of the problem led to data crossing multiple regions. In these instances, the data was included in the analysis of the regions with an emphasis on the source countries. During data collection, the most recent governmental information was preferred over other sources. The researcher discovered throughout the review of the data, demographic variables from previously conducted surveys in governmental databases. The demographic information identified potential similarities to investigate during further phases of the research. The data collection in this phase was limited, as the researcher could not personally conduct surveys or interviews and relied solely on the secondary data.

43 33 Data Analysis The researchers in the initial UN surveys crosschecked and questioned to local experts in the field with constant interaction from authorities providing the information during the initial survey. The data generated comes from multiple agencies, segmented, and scattered, and in many cases different methods, counting rules, and processes are used. In the secondary content analysis, the comparison of data was limited to two case studies. However, the comparison is difficult due to the different phenomena and tracking methods in each country. The intent of the data is to be a simple identification of characteristics common in human traffickers, drug traffickers, and victims. The purpose of data analysis during the qualitative research is to analyze the words to describe the occurrences at hand (Creswell 2009). To compare and contrast human trafficking and narcotics smuggling enterprises, the researcher conducted comparative modeling processes. The case studies further dissected and analyzed each criminal enterprise individually, and compared it to current United States and international policies. To identify the casual links between entities, the researcher applied pattern analysis (Clark 2010, 63). This analysis identifies the patterns found between human trafficking, drug smuggling, terrorist activities, and the policies designed to combat them. For instance, if earlier policies were making unknowing positive impacts on either human trafficking and/or drug smuggling and the policies were changed, the research can highlight the positive impact. Simultaneously, the researcher conducted comparative analysis to evaluate and compare statistical data on the policy effectiveness. The data analysis searched for interrelated aspects. The researcher then interpreted

44 34 the meaning of the patterns and reflected how these results relate to the existing research (Creswell 2009). Validity and Reliability The validity of the research depends heavily on the legitimacy of the information provided by these sources. The sources included in the original data collection were law enforcement agencies, governmental agencies, and victim assistance organizations (UN Office of Drugs and Crimes 2009). There are other means of validating the data in this research as well as methods to overcome threats to the validity in the research. Triangulation allows accurate validation of case study results, especially in qualitative research methods (Creswell 2009). Using multiple data sources, researcher perspectives, observations, theories, and methodologies assisted in gaining an accurate and valid data analysis. This study used the data collected from participants in the UN survey and incorporated the results into multiple sources of government and academic research to gain an understanding of the drug industry, human trafficking, and terrorist organization connections. The research design allowed the strengths of the data gleaned from UN surveys to identify the characteristics of each network of players and victims. The strengths of the qualitative data allowed an understanding of how and why there are links between the organizations and the threat posed to national security. Creating a case study database, maintaining a chain of evidence, and using multiple sources of evidence strengthen the construct validity and reliability of case studies (Yin 2002). This study used multiple sources of evidence, from two specific groups, compiled the data into a spreadsheet and kept notes on each piece of evidence was obtained, stored, documented, and

45 35 used in the final report. The multiple sources of data collection increased the quality of the research. Internal validity is applicable to most research intended to establish a causal relationship (Yin 2002). However, in this non-experimental case study, the analysis of participants is on a secondary basis. The initial survey did not use any experimental treatments on the participants. The case study was descriptive in nature intending to identify and describe characteristics of terrorist organizations, human trafficking, and drug networks. The next step of the research only compared the data collected and thus without actual participants internal validity is not relevant to this research study. The intent of this study was to gain understanding of the links between terrorist organizations, human trafficking and drug networks and the effect to national security. External validity and reliability is the generalization of the results to larger populations (Yin 2002). The case study focused on two specific entities and due to the differences in reporting, regulations, and ideology is not a generalization of all terrorist organizations, human trafficking, or drug networks. Summary Chapter 3 outlined the details of the research method and design used for the study. The preferred method for the study was non-experimental exploratory qualitative approach to identify the characteristics of drug smugglers, human trafficking networks, and terrorist organizations. Next, the researcher explored the characteristic patterns and identified how these created or did not create a national security threat. This chapter also reviewed the research question, discussed

46 36 the validity and reliability of the study, and identified the data collection and analysis procedures. The data collected was applicable to the focused countries and the generalized characteristics of each organization with the limitation of differing governmental controls and ideologies. Future researchers can achieve replication of the first phase of the study with a secondary content analysis of the survey data collected from governmental agencies. Similarly, future researchers can replicate the other phases of the study with a subordinate analysis of governmental data collected on the effectiveness of policies to combat terrorist organizations, drug networks, and human trafficking.

47 37 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS The purpose of this study, through the examination of statistical and historical data, is to explore the links between human trafficking, smuggling, and selling of narcotics and terrorism in an effort to understand how and why these links translate into a threat to United States national security. The first phase of the study identified, defined, and provided a historical background of human trafficking, narcotics trafficking, and terrorist organizations. The second phase of the study explored the connection of terrorist organizations and both human and drug trafficking operations. The final phase identified, defined, and linked positive and negative contributions to combating the threat terrorist organizations, human trafficking, and drug networks have on national security. This chapter reports the results of each phase including the characteristics of key players in the research study, and the qualitative analysis of the links between the organizations, and the effect of these links on national security policies. The data collected during this phase, provided an overview of each organization s demographic characteristics, organizational structure, and instances of criminal convictions. The qualitative data collection consisted of governmental policy reviews and documentation of terrorist groups, drug networks, and human trafficking organizations. All data collection focused on the central research question of: How do U.S. national security policies affect the ability of terrorists to use human trafficking and narcotic smuggling as means to finance their terrorist operations? Sub-questions obtained from initial data review supported and further clarified the central research question. They include: 1. What links are present in Afghanistan narcotic operations and terrorist organizations? 2. What links are present in Columbian narcotic operations and terrorist organizations?

48 38 3. What links are present in Afghanistan human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations? 4. What links are present in Columbian human trafficking operations and terrorist organizations? 5. How do U.S. national policies rationalize, justify, change, or not change the links between human trafficking, drug smuggling, and terrorist groups? Content Analysis of UNODC Report Drug Trafficking Drug Trafficker Characteristics in Afghanistan The UNODC gathered the information in this phase during a month-long period of fieldwork in Afghanistan in October Workers conducted over 70 interviews in Kabul, the north, south, east, and west of the country (International Organization for Migration 2008, 11). Additional interviews by UNODC Afghanistan-based staff in the west. Interviews were conducted with Afghan officials at all levels of government, representatives of international organizations, international military and police personnel, representatives of civil society, and several unaffiliated individuals and businessmen identified as having specific knowledge of the changing nature of criminal organizations in Afghanistan. UNODC personnel also conducted interviews with individuals involved in, or on the margins of, the trafficking networks themselves.

49 39 The actual drug trafficking operations have been shifting into the hands of a limited number of key players, who have political connections but do not generally operate overtly in the political arena. These key traffickers, some of whom are relatively new players who have emerged in the last three years, are essentially self-styled businesspersons. The system has evolved into one where emerging criminal organizations engage in a complex system of payoffs, and where the resulting protection and patronage benefits both parties. In short, criminal activities such as trafficking are less overtly the business of political leaders and more the province of an emerging criminal underworld with strong political connections (International Organization for Migration 2008). Despite the separation between the political upper world and the criminal underworld, it remains impossible to operate in the latter without support from the former. Compromising key state institutions to support criminal activities achieves this goal. Survey respondents (International Organization for Migration 2008) identified many of the identified political leaders in the Taliban and proper government. In Afghanistan, the drug trafficking enterprise has immersed itself into all avenues of the population in a pyramid structure (see fig. 1).

50 key traffickers traffickers mid-level traders 10-15,000 local traders 350,000 families involved in poppy cultivation Figure 1. Drug trafficking involvement in Afghanistan population. Source: IOM The demographics of drug traders and traffickers in Afghanistan are limited because of the clandestine nature of the illicit activity. However, as figure 1 illustrates, the entire population of the country is involved in one form or another with drug trafficking. Local farmers, whose livelihood depends on producing crops for survival, turn to cultivating poppy because of the need for minimal irrigation necessary for growth and the fiscal wealth opium yields. A hectare of opium can yield an estimated 4,500 dollars whereas the same size crop of wheat may bring in only five percent of that of opium (UNDCP 2001). Despite the financial incentives, cultivating and harvesting opium bring to local famers, some refuse to grow it because of their religious followings of the Quran. Those who resist the temptations face coercion by traders further up the pyramid into growing the illegal plant through the threat of violence by insurgents, pressured by landowners, or by exploitative sharecropping agreements.

51 Equality Percentage 41 Drug Trafficker Characteristics in Colombia Again, the data is statistically limited due to the secretive nature of the criminal enterprise. Much of the data obtained comes from convicted traffickers who are often unwilling to share the interworking of the enterprise. The UNODC field research conducted numerous surveys with very little input. Historically, drug traffickers in Colombia were young men brought into the family business. As cartels grew, there simply were not enough family and close friends to defend the organization (UN Office on Drugs and Crimes 2012). The distribution of wealth in Colombia is predictive of violence levels. Feelings of resentment around the inequality provide criminals with justification and opportunity for their activities. The Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income among households in the economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution (World Bank 2008). There is a large gap between legitimate and illegitimate economic opportunities in Colombia (see fig. 2). Income Eqaulity (GINI Index) Japan Costa Rica Colombia Afghanistan 100 Percent=Perfect Income Equality Figure 2: Gini index for Source: World Bank Joining the drug cartels became a micro-economic decision rather than having connections and intense loyalty to a family. Illegal labor markets hosted higher wages and the ability to better the stability for families. Young men are now more educated than previous traffickers. They avoid

52 42 sumptuous and accusing consumer habits conform to behavior patterns that do not make them excessively visible, and develop personal presentation techniques that identify them as legal businesspersons (International Organization for Migration 2008). Human Trafficking Over a period of seven years, ( ), field researchers conducted interviews for the United Nations on Drugs and Crimes. The data was transferred to the International Organization for Migration (IOM) to implement a global human trafficking database is a repository of primary data on registered victims of trafficking, and in 2008 contained data on approximately 13,500 registered victims of more than 80 different nationalities trafficked to more than 90 destination countries (UN Office on Drugs and Crimes 2009). The data-management tool is a standardized anti-trafficking product that facilitates the management of victim assistance as well as mapping the victim s trafficking experience. The structure follows the format of the victim questionnaires, a screening interview form, and an assistance interview form to track the nature of assistance provided and further documents the trafficking experience. The trafficker is the person or the networks that takes advantage of the needs of others and exploits the dreams of those living in poverty and seeking a better life. The strategy of traffickers is to isolate victims from family and friends, their language and their social environment to have more control over them (UN Office on Drugs and Crimes 2009). The victims are men, women, children, and teenagers recruited, transported, bought, sold, transferred, received, or housed in a forced manner. Most victims do not approach the authorities for fear of retaliation, imprisonment, or deportation.

53 43 Human Trafficking Characteristics of Afghanistan The specific offense of trafficking in persons is not a prosecutable matter in Afghanistan (U.S. Department of State 2005). More times than not, trafficking victims are punished for crimes committed as a direct result of the trafficking action. In the initial study, the researchers conducted over 220 interviews of community informants in Kabul and nine provinces (IOM 2008). The previous researchers conducted a random selection of educated community members such as religious leaders and teachers to share their views on trafficking cases in their region. In addition, based on their identification by community informants as trafficking victims, the researchers conducted interviews of 82 individuals (IOM 2008). Many of the victims were reluctant to consent to the interviews. The trafficked victims interviewed during the survey were predominately-young adults between 18 and 24 years of age, followed by minor victims under the age of 18, and four were above the age of 25 years. Only three minor female victims consented to the interview and the rest of the respondents were male (IOM 2008). Women and their families currently face great obstacles in reporting their cases due to the social stigma in Afghanistan. Currently, the Afghan law criminalizes and imprisons trafficking victims. Most of the male victims in the survey were of lower economic stature (below 100 US dollars per month). They actively opted for a smuggling option to better their employment situation. In this case, the majority of adult victims (13 in this case) become victims through false promises while 57 percent of the children (4 in this case) are forcibly removed (IOM 2008). All of the survey respondents were Afghan and reported significantly lower education rates than the national average. Only two (10 percent) of the respondents had completed primary school up to the 6th grade and the rest were nearly

54 44 illiterate (IOM 2008). This lower level of education in the country creates a huge potential trafficking market in Afghanistan. The database further identifies the government data varying greatly to the survey results. The official reported data shows an increased level of females being trafficked compared to the survey results (see fig. 3) Afghanistan Human Trafficking Victims by Gender Boys Girls Figure 3: Victims of trafficking identified by gender in Afghanistan. Source: U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime Similarly, the official government data reports differing reasons for trafficking than those supported by the survey (see fig. 4). This data explicitly points to the bias that is inherent to government statistics as well as the cultural differences in the country. 120 Afghanistan Human Trafficking Victims by Explotation Type Sexual Explotation Forced Marriage Forced Labor Figure 4: Victims of trafficking by exploitation type in Afghanistan: Source: U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime 2009.

55 45 The majority of traffickers in Afghanistan were males ranging from years old. In this case, their families to increase the economic stability of the family or to work off a debt of the family sell many of the child victims. There is limited data on trafficker demographics because of the lack of formalized controls. Many traffickers also hold positions in government agencies and use these positions to influence the lower education, poor victims. Human Trafficking Characteristics of Colombia The UN Office collected the profile of the victims in Colombia over the 7-year period during an initial study period on Drugs and Crime. The victims were 90 percent single women or heads of households, between 23 and 37 years of age with an average of 3 children. The women had socio-economic instability, a past of domestic violence and found displaced or exercising prostitution (UN Office on Drugs and Crimes 2009). While it is difficult to calculate actual numbers of victims because of this fact, IOM estimates there are between 45,000 and 50,000 women forced into prostitution. This fact places Colombia third in exporting women in Latin America (UN Office on Drugs and Crimes 2009). The statistical data reported by internal Colombian governmental agencies is conflicting on victim characteristics. According to data reviewed, the victims identified by governmental authorities were boys exploited for labor (see figs. 5 and 6).

56 Colombia Human Trafficking Victims by Gender Girls Boys Figure 5: Victims of trafficking identified by gender in Colombia. Source: U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime Colombia Human Trafficking Victims by Explotation Type Other Sexual Explotation Forced Labor Figure 6: Victims of trafficking identified by exploitation type in Colombia. Source: U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime 2009 Further data identifying demographics of the traffickers was available based on arrested offenders. The traffickers were mostly women ranging in age from years old, 81 percent of Columbian orientation, with a stable economic stature based on higher education levels (UN Office on Drugs and Crimes 2009).