Effects of Parental Involvement in Education

Transcription

1 Effects of Parental Involvement in Education A Case Study in Namibia Guðlaug Erlendsdóttir M.Ed. Thesis University of Iceland School of Education

2 Effects of Parental Involvement in Education A Case Study in Namibia Guðlaug Erlendsdóttir M.Ed. Thesis in Educational Administration Supervisor: Börkur Hansen Faculty of Education Studies School of Education, University of Iceland October 2010

3 Effects of parental involvement in education. A case study in Namibia M.Ed. thesis, Faculty of Education Studies,University of Iceland Copyright 2010 Guðlaug Erlendsdóttir No part of this material may be reproduced without the permission of the author. Printing: Háskólaprent Reykjavík, 2010

4 Preface This paper is my final project submitted for the completion of M.Ed. degree in Educational Administration in the Faculty of Education Studies at the University of Iceland. The project accounts for 20 ECTS. In the project I investigated how parental involvement in children s education affects academic achievement. Parents of high achieving students at Combretum Trust School in Windhoek in Namibia were interviewed for this purpose. Most of the research was done during the first half of 2010, with interviews conducted in June. My supervisor was Professor Börkur Hansen, Department Chair of Educational Administration and Evaluation Studies. I want to thank him for his guidance and assistance during my research work. I also received input from Allyson Macdonald, Professor at the Faculty of Education Studies, and I wish to thank her for her valuable comments and insights. In addition, I wish to thank Susan Brown, the Director of Combretum Trust School in Namibia for her encouragement and support, not least for bringing me into contact with the parents who participated in the study. My heartfelt gratitude goes to these parents for allowing me to probe into their lives and those of their children. I also want to thank Tinna Wiium, my research assistant, for proofreading and for her valuable assistance with transcribing all the interviews. Last but not least, I want to thank my husband Villi, our children Dagmar Ýr, Tinna Rut and Rúnar Atli for their continuous support, encouragement and patience throughout this process. 3

5 4

6 Abstract In my research, I endeavour to ascertain how parental involvement at Combretum Trust School in Namibia affects the academic achievement of students. In the educational literature it is often claimed that involvement of parents results in better academic achievement than if parents are not involved. The aim of the research is to see if this relationship exists at a school in Namibia, a developing country that faces many educational challenges. In this case study a qualitative research approach was used. Data was gathered by interviewing parents of seven students at Combretum Trust School in Windhoek, who all have achieved academically. The objective of the interviews was to learn if and how the parents are involved in their children s education. In addition, I wanted to gain information as to the experiences and attitudes of those parents towards their children s education and education in general. The main findings are that all the parents who were interviewed are highly involved with their children s education. They have high expectations towards their children s education and their future. In addition, they are all quite vocal about their expectations to their children. The parents all recognise the importance of staying involved with their child s education and participate fully. All the parents want to know how their child spends his or her time outside of school and with whom their child spends his or her time. Most of the parents consider themselves to have a good relationship with their child s teachers and the school. Homework is considered to be important by each parent and they all assist their child with homework if the need arises. Thus, it may be concluded that by staying involved with their children s education in this way the parents do impact positively on the academic achievement of the students chosen for this study at Combretum Trust School in Namibia. 5

7 6

8 Ágrip Áhrif þátttöku foreldra í námi barna sinna: Dæmi frá Namibíu Í verkefninu er leitast við að varpa ljósi á þau áhrif sem þátttaka foreldra í námi barna sinna hefur á námsframmistöðu nemenda í Combretum Trust skólanum í Namibíu. Í fræðigreinum er því oft haldið fram að þátttaka foreldra leiði meðal annars til betri námsárangurs nemenda. Markmið þessarar rannsóknar er að kanna hvort slík þátttaka foreldra sé til staðar í skóla einum í Namibíu sem er þróunarland og á við margskonar vanda að stríða í menntamálum. Um er að ræða tilviksrannsókn þar sem eigindlegri rannsóknaraðferð var beitt. Gagna var aflað með viðtölum við foreldra sjö nemenda, sem hafa sýnt góðan námsárangur, í Combretum Trust skólanum í Windhoek. Markmið með viðtölunum var að kanna hvort og þá hvernig foreldrarnir taka þátt í námi barna sinna. Að auki vildi ég fá að heyra af reynslu og viðhorfi foreldranna gagnvart námi barna sinna og námi almennt. Rannsókn mín bendir til þess að viðmælendur mínir taki virkan þátt í námi barna sinna á marga vegu. Þeir vænta mikils af námi barna sinna og áhrifa þess á framtíð barnanna. Allir gera þeir börnum sínum grein fyrir þessum væntingum sínum. Foreldrarnir gera sér allir grein fyrir mikilvægi þess að taka virkan þátt í námi barna sinna og eru fullgildir þátttakendur. Auk þess vilja foreldrarnir vita hvað börnin þeirra gera utan skólatíma og með hverjum. Flestir foreldranna telja sig eiga góð samskipti við kennara barna sinna. Jafnframt telja allir foreldrarnir heimavinnu vera mikilvægan þátt í námi barnanna og allir aðstoða þeir börnin sín með heimanám ef þess gerist þörf. Því má leiða líkum að því að með virkri þátttöku í námi barna sinna hafa foreldrarnir jákvæð áhrif á námsárangur þeirra nemenda sem valdir voru til þátttöku í rannsókninni í Combretum Trust skólanum í Namibíu. 7

9 8

10 Table of contents Preface...3 Abstract...5 Ágrip...7 Table of contents Introduction Education in Namibia Combretum Trust School Theoretical background Epstein s Framework The family s socio-economic status Parental involvement and academic outcomes Parental involvement and reading Parental involvement and mathematics Parental involvement and science Parental involvement and non-academic outcomes Attendance Behaviour Attitude Homework Parent school communication Level of parental involvement Summary Methodology Qualitative methods Critical issues The research question My research, the process, and data analysing The research process Data analysis

11 4.4 Choice of research method Participants Findings Parenting Communication Volunteering Learning at home Decision-making Collaborating with the community Summary Discussion Parenting Communication Volunteering Learning at home Decision-making Collaborating with the community Summary...82 References...83 Appendix I: Interview guide

12 1 Introduction Research findings suggest that parents attitudes, along with their behaviour and activities with regard to their children s education, do affect academic achievement in a positive way (Hui-Chen Huang and Mason, 2008). There appears to be general agreement about the effects the family can have by being involved with their children s education. Students earn higher grades, they enrol in higher education, and their attitude towards school becomes more positive if the family, the community and school all work together (Henderson and Mapp, 2002). In addition, Henderson and Berla (1994) claim that parental involvement in their children s education affects their school attendance, more students graduate, and behaviour of students improves. According to Epstein (2009), ample research evidence suggests that most parents want their children to succeed in school and in order for them to be good partners in their children s education, they yearn to obtain more information from schools. Likewise, most students at all school levels, whether it being elementary school, middle school or high school level, want their families to be familiar and acquainted partners about schooling. The positive effects that parental involvement has on students academic achievement appear to be undeniable. Therefore, it should be a top priority for parents and schools to establish and maintain a strong partnership between schools and homes. The purpose of this study is to ascertain in what ways parents of academically high achieving students at Combretum Trust School in Windhoek, Namibia, are involved in their education. The parents are for instance asked about their expectations to their child s education; the relationship they have with the school and staff; and whether they monitor their children s schoolwork. In addition, the aim is to learn what effects it may have on academic achievement of the students selected for this study, if their parents are actively involved with their education. Since education is one of the key factors for the country s development, it goes without saying how important it is for Namibia that its students to do well in school. Therefore, it will be interesting to study how parents in one school in Namibia are involved with their children s education. In addition, it will be intriguing to learn the parents attitude towards their children s education, and education in general. 11

13 For the purpose of the study, I selected seven students who have shown their academic ability, irrespective of their socio-economic status, nationality and gender. However, the one common denominator is their academic achievement. I conducted interviews with the parents/guardians of these students and assessed the effects their involvement has on their education, irrespective of their socio-economic status. The structure of the dissertation is as follows. In chapter two, education in general in Namibia is discussed, along with description of Combretum Trust School. Chapter three gives theoretical background on parental involvement, which is discussed in some detail. In chapter four, the methodology chapter, a qualitative research approach is discussed which is the approach used in this study. Chapter five includes main findings, where direct quotes from participants are used to give their experiences and attitudes more weight. In chapter six, the main findings of this study are discussed in relation to theory and other research findings. Then follows a list of references, and lastly the questions used for the interviews. 12

14 2 Education in Namibia Namibia gained its independence from South Africa on 21 March At that time, there was no compulsory education in the country (Amukugo, 2002). Many children in rural areas either started schooling much later than at age seven, which was the Namibian school entering age, or did not enrol in school at all. The consequence was that, at the time of independence, there was a high rate of illiteracy in Namibia. Callewaert and Kallos (in Amukugo, 2002) investigated the enrolment at schools in the northern part of Namibia, where most African Namibians live. They concluded that in the year 1988, after four years in school, less than 50% of students who started school in the north remained in school. Inequalities in education are demonstrated further when the colonial government s education budget is analysed. In the year 1986, on average the South African colonial government spent more than three thousand rand on each white student in Namibia; which is six times higher than the lowest amount spent on an African student (Amukugo, 2002). This differential expenditure in education, in accordance with race and class division continued until independence. It is also interesting to look at qualifications of teachers in Namibia at the time of independence. It has been estimated (Amukugo, 2002) that 57% of all employed teachers in Namibia did not graduate from grade ten. Furthermore, between seven and 37% of the total number of teachers in Namibia did not graduate from grade eight. With this lack of qualifications among Namibian teachers, it is easy to imagine the quality of teaching since many will agree that the quality of education depends highly on the quality and availability of teaching staff. So, the new democratically elected Namibian government made it one of its top priorities to make education in Namibia compulsory for all children. Soon, grade one through grade ten became compulsory (Government of Namibia, 2002). When Namibia became independent, the new government inherited the colonial socio-economic system. This meant that changes were introduced gradually, rather than revolutionary. Amukugo (2002) stresses the point that educational reforms after independence need to be viewed against that background. It is interesting to look at statistics on teacher qualifications in Namibia since independence. The percentage of primary school teachers 13

15 qualified to teach grew steadily between the years In the year 1997, only 21% of primary school teachers were qualified to teach. By the year 2000, this number had reached 36.3% and in 2003 it had more than doubled since 1997 and was now 50.9% (Ministry of Education, 2005). In 2006, 65.1% of primary school teachers were qualified and by 2007, the percentage had reached 71% (Ministry of Education, 2008). The growing percentage of qualified secondary school teachers is similar as the primary school teachers. Between the years , the percentage of qualified secondary school teachers has grown from 53% in 1997, to 90.3% in 2007 (Ministry of Education, 2005 and 2008). Even though grade ten is the last compulsory grade, many schools in Namibia offer grades eleven and grade twelve. Students write their matriculation examination at the end of grade twelve. If a student fails any grade, he or she is required to repeat that grade. When students reach the twelfth grade, they can choose to study at an ordinary level or a higher level. The difference between these two levels is the pace and content of the study material. A student who graduates from a higher level in grade twelve can be guaranteed admittance to the University of Namibia. However, a student who graduates from an ordinary level cannot be sure of being admitted. This is especially true with regards to universities in South Africa, where many of the young people of Namibia go for their university education. Therefore, it is vital for students to study at a higher level if they plan to study at a university. In spite of it being compulsory to finish grade ten in Namibia, not all students finish their compulsory education. Statistics for school-leavers and failures are very similar from one year to the next for each grade. When statistics are looked at for the year 2006, for the rate of schoolleaving at grade one, grade five, grade eight and grade ten it is clear that 4.7% of children who started grade one dropped out of school that year. The percentage of children who left school in grade five, was 6.6% and 10.7% of students in grade eight left school in The promotion rate from grade ten to grade eleven in 2006 was 55.7%, which means that 44.3% of students failed grade ten. The percentage of school-leavers in grade ten that year is 37.3% (Ministry of Education, 2008). The high percentage of students who fail and/or drop out of grade ten is quite worrisome because unemployment rate in Namibia is very high. Unemployment rate amongst young people between the ages of 15 and 24 14

16 in the year 2001 was 44.8% (IndexMundi, undated). The national average unemployment rate among the unskilled is 56% (Marope, 2005). The Namibian school year follows the calendar year, that is, it starts in January and ends in November, with three semester. As of today, the average class size in Namibia is 30.9 students per teacher. For primary schools the average class size is 30.7 students, and at the secondary level the average class size is 32 students per teacher. There are primary schools in the country, of which 54 are private. Secondary schools are 176, of which 16 are private. In the year 2007, 76.3% of schools in the country had sanitary facilities for the students, with 63.5% of them as flushing toilets and the rest being pits. That same year, 80.5% of schools had water supplies (Ministry of Education, 2008). The Namibian population consists of 2 about million inhabitants. The adult (15-49 years) literacy rate in Namibia is 82% and the enrolment rate for primary schools is 89.1% and 48.3% for secondary schools. By the end of 2001, the prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS among young people (15-49 years) was 22.5%. In the year 1991 the life expectancy at birth was 61 years but by 2005 it had declined to around 40 years (Marope, 2005). By 2021 the number of orphans in the country is expected to rise from in 2001 to ; HIV/AIDS orphans accounting for Poverty in Namibia is generally very high and, on average, 41% of homes in Namibia lived in either poverty or abject poverty in the years 2003/2004 (National Planning Commmission, 2008). Whether or not the family lives in poverty depends highly on the educational level of the head of the household. The percentage of homes that live in poverty or abject poverty where the head of the household has no formal education is 76.7%. When the head of the household has either primary education or secondary education, the percentage of homes that live in poverty or abject poverty is 53.2% and 17.7% respectively. On the other hand, amongst the households where the head of the household has finished a university degree the percentage of homes who live in poverty or abject poverty is only 0.5%. These numbers show how important education is for the homes in the country. Therefore, it is quite evident that in order to get out of the cycle of poverty, parents need to educate their children, and that way try to ensure that their children do not fall into the poverty trap. These statistics emphasise the importance for families, schools and authorities to work together and support students in every way possible in 15

17 order to impact and affect students academic achievement. Therefore, I believe it to be fundamental to understand what factors are important in our children s education. The goal with this research is not only to find out what my participants have in common when it comes to parental involvement in their children s education, but not least to help parents to understand how important it is for their children that they are involved with their education. Therefore the importance of this research for Namibian society must be considered quite valuable, in spite of little generalisation. 2.1 Combretum Trust School Combretum Trust School is a small, private secondary school in Windhoek, the capital of Namibia. The school is owned and run by Combretum Educational Trust. Combretum Educational Trust is a nonprofit, non-government organisation working in the field of education in Namibia. The main objectives of the Trust are to study and develop new ways in co-operation with the private sector in Namibia that will lead to more quality education and to give the young people of Namibia a chance, especially those who have talent, potential, commitment and motivation. The school offers classes with relatively few students in each, at an affordable price. Combretum Trust School began in the year 2004 and in the beginning, the school only offered grade eight and nine with about 35 students. Each year the school added another grade until the year 2007, when the school had grades from eight to twelve. Only one class is in each grade and around 130 students are studying at the school today. In grade eight, nine, ten and eleven, there are 25 students in each grade, whereas grade twelve has 30 students. Students at Combretum Trust School come from quite a diverse background, both with regards to ethnic group and country. Namibian students at Combretum Trust School come from six different ethnic groups, with most of them from the Oshiwambo and Herero ethnic groups. There are also Damara/Nama students, Rehoboth Basters, coloured and white. Almost 30% of the students are foreigners with most of them coming from Angola and Zimbabwe. There are also students from South Africa, Cuba, Zambia and Ethiopia. 16

18 New students do not need to write an entrance exam when they start their schooling at Combretum Trust School. The school considers each and every student to have a capability to study, but he or she only needs to be given an opportunity in order to achieve academically. If questions arise as to whether applicants have any problems, either socially or academically, they are interwieved. Through these interviews, the school assesses if it is qualified and equipped to give the student the required assistance before his/her application is approved. School fees cover the administrational and running cost of the school. Since the school fees are moderate, the financial situation of the school is not very strong. Therefore, little room is for renovating class rooms, or to buy books or equipment for the school. The school rents the premises, which is a considerable part of the school s expenditure. The staff at Combretum Trust School includes sixteen personnel, thirteen teachers, thereof seven who are full time, one secretary and receptionist, one property overseer and the Director. The teachers, similar to the students, are a group of mixed internationals; eight are Namibians, two are Zimbabweans, one from the Republic of Congo, one from the United States and one from Canada. The foreign teachers are on a work permit, which is issued for one year at a time. All the teachers, but two, at Combretum Trust School have a university degree in their teaching subject. 17

19 18

20 3 Theoretical background Parental involvement in education has been a topic of interest for many years among those who are concerned with improving academic achievement for children (Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler, 1997). After reviewing the literature, Henderson and Mapp (2002) indicate that student achievement is most commonly defined by report cards and grades, grade point averages, enrolment in advanced classes, attendance and staying in school, being promoted to the next grade, and improved behaviour. Many researchers recognise the important role a strong positive bond between homes and schools play in the development and education of children (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Richardson, 2009; Sheldon, 2009; Edwards and Alldred, 2000; Henderson and Berla, 1994). The theories put forward have been supported, and reaffirmed, by numerous studies that have shown that good cooperation between schools, homes and the communities can lead to academic achievement for students, as well as to reforms in education. Research has also shown that successful students have strong academic support from their involved parents (Sheldon, 2009). Furthermore, research on effective schools, those where students are learning and achieving, has consistently shown that these schools, despite often working in low social and economic neighbourhoods, have strong and positive school-home relationships (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Sheldon, 2009). More importantly, these effective schools have made a real effort in reaching out to their students families in order to bring about liaison and cooperation. Bryk and Schneider (in Sanders and Sheldon, 2009) maintain that schools become successful when a strong and positive relationship among students, parents, teachers and the community has been established. All students are more likely to experience academic success if their home environment is supportive (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Henderson and Berla, 1994). The benefit for students of a strong relationship between schools and homes is based on the development of trust between parents and teachers. According to Bryk and Schneider (in Muscott et al., 2008), this trusting relationship occurs when teachers and parents respect one another and believe in the ability of the other person and his or her willingness to fulfil their responsibilities. 19

21 Research has regularly shown that with increasing parental participation in their children s education student success rate increases. According to the Department of Education (2004) in the United States, studies have shown that students with involved parents are more likely to earn higher grades, pass their class and be promoted, they are more likely to attend school regularly and graduate and go on to postsecondary education, irrespective of their socio-economic status. Jerry Trusty (in Henderson and Mapp, 2002) concurs with this, and claims that the level of parental involvement in high school influences the students expectations to finish college. In addition, Obeidat and Al-Hassan (2009) maintain that not only do children with involved parents gain academically, but they are also more likely to show improved behaviour and to have better social skills. The definition of parental involvement, according to the Department of Education in the United States (2004) is the participation of parents in regular, two-way and meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school activities, including ensuring that parents play an integral role in assisting their child s learning; that parents are encouraged to be actively involved in their child s education at school; that parents are full partners in their child s education and are included, as appropriate, in decision-making and on advisory committees to assist in the education of their child. In the national educational goals for the United States, the notion of partnership between family and school in order to prevent school failure for children is implicit (Christenson and Sheridan, 2001). Such partnership has been defined as a principal protective factor for children and is characterised as a form of safety net in order to promote children s education and their school experience. The goal of family involvement in their children s education is to strengthen learning and the development of children. It is beneficial for the students to have schools, teachers, parents and the community working together as a unity with the focus on students (Glasgow and Whitney, 2009). Since countless research strongly and consistently supports relationships between homes and schools, 20

22 Corrigan and Bishop (1997) maintain that such liaison should no longer be regarded as an option, but rather as a necessity. Gutman and McLoyd (2000) carried out research with the aim of ascertaining the parental behaviour of typical successful students and comparing them with students who were encountering behavioural and academic problems. Their findings suggest that parents of academically successful students used a more specific approach to assist their children with schoolwork. For instance, they had more supportive communication with their children than the parents of less academically successful students. In addition, they frequently checked their children s progress by contacting the school, and maintained positive relationships with school staff. Whereas, the parents of less achieving children seldom contacted the school. Sheldon (2009) concurs with this, and claims that parental involvement and a supportive home environment are no less important for academic success, than quality teaching and committed and caring teachers are. Epstein (2009) alleges that there are many reasons for developing and establishing a partnership between school, family and community. The main reason for such a partnership is to aid students in succeeding at school. Other reasons are, for example, to improve school climate and school programs, to advance parental skills and leadership, to assist families to connect with others in the school and the community, as well as to assist teachers with their work. All these reasons emphasise the importance for parents to play an active role in their children s education and to keep a strong and positive relationship with schools. 3.1 Epstein s Framework A framework containing six important factors with regards to parental involvement has been developed by Epstein and her co-workers at the Center on Family, School, and Community Partnership at John Hopkins University. This framework is based on findings from many studies of what factors are most effective when it comes to children s education (Epstein, 2009). Those six factors are parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making and collaborating with the community. Parenting pertains to helping all families understand the development of both the child and the adolescent. It also helps establishing a supportive home environment for children as students. 21

23 Communicating refers to how best to design and conduct an effective two-way communication, that is school-to-home and home-to-school, about school programs and their children s progress. Volunteering applies to recruiting and organising help and support from parents for school programs and students activities. Learning at home pertains to providing ideas and information to parents about how they can best assist their children with homework and curricular related decisions and activities. Decision-making refers to including parents in school decisions and to developing parent leaders and representatives. Collaborating with the community pertains to identifying and integrating communities services and resources to support and strengthen schools, students, and their families. Each of these factors can lead to various results for students, parents, teaching practices and the school climate. In addition, each factor includes many different practices of partnership. Lastly, each factor poses challenges to involve all families and those challenges must be met. That is why Epstein (2009) considers it to be important for each school to choose what factors are believed to be most likely to assist the school in reaching its goals for academic success, and to develop a climate of alliance between homes and the school. Even though the main focus of these six factors is to promote academic achievements, they also contribute to various results for both parents and teachers (Epstein, 2009). For instance, it may be presumed that parents will gain more self-confidence in their role as parents, they will show leadership with decision-making, they will have more effective and productive communication with their children with regards to school work, and will have more communication with other parents at the school. According to Henderson and Berla (1994), parents also gain a more positive attitude towards the school and its staff, and gain more confidence in assisting their children with homework, by being involved with their education. In addition, they are more likely to gather support for the school and its programs in the community and become more active community members. For teachers, the benefits may be presumed to be better communication with parents, a deeper understanding of the family of their students and their situation, and more effective communication with both the homes and the community (Epstein, 2009). Henderson and 22

24 Berla (1994) also claim that the schools will benefit by parental involvement by improved teacher morale, more support from families and higher student academic achievement. In addition, Clarke (2007) asserts that schools function best when parents and the community are active participants and have a sense of ownership of the school. Therefore, it is safe to say that these six factors not only benefit the students, but also their parents, teachers and the schools. 3.2 The family s socio-economic status Besides parental involvement, there is another important factor for students academic success and that is their family s socio-economic status (Deforges and Abouchaar, 2003; Malecki and Demaray, 2006; Ho Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996). Although countless research has been conducted on socio-economic status, it appears to be an ongoing dispute about how to measure and define the concept. However, despite such a dispute there seems to be relative agreement on Duncan, Featherman, and Duncan s definition (Sirin, 2005). Their definition incorporates the tripartite nature of socio-economic status, that is, parental income, parental education and parental occupation. Extensive research has been carried out in order to study the relationship between the socio-economic status of the family and students academic achievement. The findings appear to be conclusive in this regard, that is, there is a positive relationship between the socioeconomic status of the family and the academic achievement of students (Caro, McDonald and Willms, 2009; Thomas and Stockton, 2003). Thus, it appears that socio-economic status correlates with academic achievement positively. Furthermore, scholars have demonstrated with their research that children who come from a low socio-economic background in their early school years experience more problems as they grow older. These children tend to drop out of school early and are less likely to seek college education (Caro, McDonald and Willms, 2009). Though studies have shown that students from higher income families tend to do better at school, students from all backgrounds do benefit if their parents become involved (Henderson and Mapp, 2002; Henderson and Berla, 1994). Malecki and Demaray (2006) concluded from their study, that students from a low socio-economic background, achieved more academically if their parents were involved with their school. From 23

25 their research, Ho Sui-Chu and Willms (1996) maintain that higherincome, and two parent family households, are not necessarily more involved with their children s education than lower-income families headed by one parent. However, involvement is more likely to occur in families with a more educationally and financially stable background, unless the schools make a concerted effort to reach parents (Muscott et al., 2008). In a study by Keith and Keith (1993) they found that families from all socio-economic levels are involved with their children s education at home. However, families with a higher socio-economic status tended to be more involved at school. Lareau and Horvat (1999) addressed these variations on involvement by parents of different socio-economic status in a case study. They observed that white middle-class families appeared to share social and cultural capital with school staff and were therefore more comfortable in communicating with them. These families also use the same vocabulary as teachers and feel entitled to treat teachers as equals and they have culturally supportive social networks. These factors allow the families of a higher socio-economic status to construct their relationship with the school with more trust and comfort. 3.3 Parental involvement and academic outcomes According to Epstein (in Richardson, 2009), parental involvement is the most powerful influence in a child s education. It can have various effects on students, both academically and behaviourally. Initially, research on family involvement generally did not aim at differentiating between the effects of specific types of involvement on definite student outcomes (Sheldon, 2009). But rather, the connections between general measures of parental involvement with students test scores and grades were analysed. However, recently, researchers started studying how different types of involvement connect to specific student outcomes. According to the Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement (Obeidat and Al-Hassan, 2009; ), successful parental involvement may be defined as the active, ongoing participation of a parent or primary caregiver in the education of his or her child. At home, parents can demonstrate their involvement in different ways; such as by reading for their child, assisting with homework, and having regular discussions about school or school work with their child. In addition, it is 24

26 important for parents to convey their expectations to their child s education. Research has provided ample evidence that parental involvement affects achievement in core subjects such as reading, mathematics and science, and the behaviour of students, their school attendance and their attitude and adjustment to school (Sheldon, 2009; Sanders and Sheldon, 2009). According to Jerry Trusty (in Henderson and Mapp, 2002), student perception of their parents involvement and expectations are also highly effective and influential in their education. Moreover, students who feel their parents support for their education and have good communication are more likely to continue their studies past high school Parental involvement and reading Research findings have demonstrated that there is an overwhelming connection between literary resources in the homes and children s reading skills (Sheldon, 2009; Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Glasgow and Whitney, 2009). Children who come from reading oriented homes, where books are readily available to them and their parents are avid readers, have a tendency to score higher on reading achievement tests than children from less reading oriented homes. It also affects their literacy skills to have their parents read to them. Thus, parents can have positive effects on their children s reading skills and boost their reading comprehension by reading to them and making sure there are always books available. Most of the research on the effects of parental involvement on students literacy skills and reading has been done with families of preschool children and children in the first grades of primary school (Sheldon, 2009; Sanders and Sheldon, 2009). However, studies have been conducted with families of older students and it is evident that, although teachers and schools have significant influences on children s learning to read in the first grades, parents still remain very influential (Sheldon, 2009). Furthermore, studies have reported that parental involvement does not cease to affect reading achievements of students in the early years of schooling. Instead, it appears to continue to positively affect the reading achievement and academic development of students well into primary school, secondary school and even high school (Sanders and Sheldon, 25

27 2009). Research among secondary school students shows that those students whose parents have high educational expectations for their children, discuss with their children their school and future plans and monitor their homework, have a tendency to earn a higher grade in English and to score higher in reading achievement tests (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009). According to Sheldon (2009), findings, such as these, confirm that parents support and interest for reading continues to be an important factor in young people s academic development through high school. These findings emphasise the importance for both parents and schools to establish and maintain a good strong relationship throughout our children s school years. Especially in secondary schools where we, as parents, often lack confidence in our ability to assist our children with their school work. To read for our children in the early years and to continue to be involved with their schoolwork are all things that each of us as parents can do, in spite of our socio-economic status or level of education. Furthermore, it is worth considering that good reading skills and reading comprehension affects student achievements in other subjects as well, since reading is fundamental in almost all subjects Parental involvement and mathematics Studies have shown that parental involvement directly affects their children s math achievement (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Yan and Lin, 2005). Students whose parents are involved in their education are more likely to perform better in math and achieve more than other students. Sirvani (2007) agrees with this and claims that parental involvement contributes significantly to achievement of both primary and secondary school students in math. In addition, these students are more likely to continue further in mathematics (Sheldon, 2009). Yan and Lin (2005) also claim that the higher the expectations parents have for their children s mathematics achievement the more the children achieve. In addition, there appears to be a large body of evidence that suggests the home environment not only affects students achievement, but also their abilities and attitudes towards math (Sheldon, 2009). Sanders and Sheldon (2009) claim that partnership and cooperation between homes and schools are important when it comes to mathematics because how the parents socialise their children can greatly affect their children s self- 26

28 perception of their own ability and achievement. According to studies, children s self-concept of their math ability is more closely related to how their parents perceive their ability rather than the actual grades obtained (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Glasgow and Whitney, 2009; Sheldon, 2009; Bleeker and Jacobs, 2004). Bleeker and Jacobs (2004) claim these psychological effects to be important, since other evidence suggests that children s self-perceptions influence their later career decisions. Gal and Stoudt (in Sanders and Sheldon, 2009) and Sheldon (2009) argue the importance for schools to bring about strong partnership with families when it comes to math and to reach out to parents. Studies suggest that many families need help and assistance with their interactions with their child with math (Sheldon, 2009). This is a result of parents feeling a lack of confidence regarding their own ability to assist their children with math. In addition, it seems that the approach to teaching math has changed since many of the parents were in school (Glasgow and Whitney, 2009). Therefore, it is essential for schools to implement activities and partnership programs with parents. Unfortunately, this is seldom done. Baker, Gersten and Lee (in Sanders and Sheldon, 2009) found by reviewing research, that few math programs actually try to connect with parents. They claim that this failure to get parents involved is contradicting to study findings that suggest that efforts to get parents involved in students math learning can indeed improve the students performances Parental involvement and science Far less research has been done on the effects of parental involvement on students science achievement than on reading and mathematics. However, Sanders and Sheldon (2009) claim that because of the increased interest in science achievement today, it is important to recognise the findings of those few studies that actually have been conducted. According to Sanders and Sheldon (2009) it is evident that parental involvement does affect children s science achievement, and particularly those children that are at risk in the subject. A study by Senler and Sungur (2009) revealed that parental involvement is connected to how students perceive the subject, and thus their attitude towards it. In addition, parental involvement contributed positively to student 27

29 achievement in science. They concluded that students, whose parents make time to talk with them about science, who have confidence in their children s ability in science, and who have higher expectations, are inclined to be more interested in the subject. In addition, when it comes to higher levels in science, these students are more likely to succeed. George and Kaplan (in Sanders and Sheldon, 2009) concur and claim that parents play a considerable role in the development of their children s attitude towards science. By engaging in science activities at home and by taking their children to visit museums and libraries they help their children to develop a positive attitude towards the subject. 3.4 Parental involvement and non-academic outcomes According to research, parental involvement does not only affect academic outcomes, but also non-academic outcomes, such as students school attendance and their behaviour and attitude towards school (Henderson and Berla, 1994). Furthermore, studies suggest that parents who are involved, can assist their children with transition from one school level to another school level, or from one school to another (Sheldon, 2009) Attendance As Sanders and Sheldon (2009) argue, it is important for schools to improve students attendance. As it goes without saying, being in school gives students more opportunities to learn. Even though schools have not systematically and consciously worked in a partnership with families in order to reduce student absenteeism, cooperation and partnerships with families are known to be important factors in order to increase student attendance (Sheldon, 2009). Research findings have identified certain aspects of parental behaviour as important indicators of lower levels of truancy among students (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Sheldon, 2009). These include monitoring student s whereabouts, discussions with their children about school, volunteering at school and being members of a parent-teacher association. It has also been shown to be helpful to improve attendance, that the school informs parents of their absent children (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009). This gives parents a chance to monitor and supervise their children s attendance more adequately. 28

30 3.4.2 Behaviour Children s behaviour, both in school and out, is closely related to the family dynamics and their home environment. Snyder and Patterson (in Sheldon, 2009) came to the conclusion twenty years ago, after reviewing the literature, that there are certain factors that are predictive of misbehaviour among juveniles. These factors are, for instance, neglectful and passive parenting styles, lax disciplinary approaches, inadequate strategies to solve problems, poor parental monitoring and frequent conflicts within the home. Among educators, it is generally understood that students family life does affect the behaviour of students. Therefore, the goal of many schools is to improve student behaviour by focusing on a partnership program with parents (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009). Focusing on such a partnership may, in addition, help to improve their academic achievement. Thus, better behaviour of students help to improve their academic achievement (Sheldon, 2009). A study of 827 African American eighth graders found that how students perceive their family support for academic achievement positively influences their behaviour. The improved behaviour in turn positively and significantly influences their school grades (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009). Richardson (2009) claims that better behaviour, among students, is one of the major benefits of parental involvement. In order to improve student behaviour, the school usually only focuses on what teachers need to do in school, instead of the school, parents and the community to work together towards that goal (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Sheldon, 2009). This is in spite of suggestions that the co-operation of everyone is needed to reduce problematic behaviour and to improve learning in school. Sheldon and Epstein (in Sanders and Sheldon, 2009) also claim that schools who have improved their partnership program with parents and the community have fewer students sent to the principal, given detentions or suspensions Attitude Parental involvement is also important for students social and emotional development (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009). Students who have parents that are involved in their education have been shown to have a higher motivation to achieve in school and a higher level of school engagement. 29

31 Thus, parental involvement can affect the student s academic achievement through the impact on the development of the student s attitude and engagement with school, as well as a student s perception of their potential. These benefits are very important for students, not least when they are moving to new schools or between school levels. Findings in a study by Brizuela and García-Sellers (1999), for instance, support other research with regards to adjustment. Students with involved parents have an easier time with adjustment to new schools than students whose parents are less involved with their education. With regards to transition between school levels, studies suggest that if measured in grades and test scores, students cope more successfully going into middle school and high school if they have involved parents who monitor their homework and discuss their school works frequently (Sanders and Sheldon, 2009; Henderson and Mapp, 2002; Sheldon, 2009) Homework It is understood that schools need more involvement from parents since the chief benefits on their children s education are higher grades, positive behaviour and attitude and more effective schools (Richardson, 2009). According to Epstein (in Patall, Cooper and Robinson, 2008), parental involvement in their children s education takes on various forms. For instance, parents may be involved by volunteering at school, communicating with the school, partaking in school decision-making, or supporting learning at home. According to Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995), parents agree that they have an important role to play in home-based activities when it comes to children s learning. These home-based activities include, among others, monitoring their child s school work and progress, discussing school related issues with their child, and assisting with homework. Furthermore, research has shown that of all the different types of parental involvement, parents report that helping their children with homework is particularly effective for enhancing their academic achievement. According to the Department of Education in the United States (in Patall, Cooper and Robinson, 2008), parent behaviour appears to corroborate this belief, 90% of parents report setting aside a place for homework, and 85% of them report checking to see that homework has been done. 30