Accessible podcasting: College students on the margins in the new media classroom

Transcription

1 Accessiblepodcasting:Collegestudentsonthemarginsinthenew mediaclassroom SeanZdenek TexasTechUniversity Introduction Studentswithdisabilitiesareindangerofbeingeitherexcludedfromthenewmedia revolutionoraccommodatedasafter thoughtsofpedagogiesthatfailtoanticipate theirneeds.toooften,ourexcitementaboutnewmedia,evenwhenthatexcitement istemperedbysoberreflection,leavesintactasetofnormativeassumptionsabout students bodies,minds,andabilities.theseassumptionsoperatebehindthescenes. Theyareactivatedreadilyandunconsciouslyasbeliefsabouthowwellorpoorly studentsmove,see,hear,think,learn,know,act,andusespecifictechnologies. Normativeorso called ableist assumptionsaboutourstudents e.g.thatthey hear,see,andmovewellenoughorincertainanticipatedwaystoengagedirectly withcourselearningtools(linton,2006) threatentoundermineour commitmentstoaccessibilityandinclusivity. Theissueisnotsimplywhetherstudentswithdisabilitiescanorshouldbe accommodated.collegesanduniversitiesinnearlyallindustrializedcountriesare requiredbylawtoprovidereasonableaccommodationsforstudentswith disabilities,justaseveryresponsibleteacheriscommittedtodesigningaccessible courses.rather,theissueiswhetherableistassumptions,coupledwiththe promisesofnewmedia,areunconsciouslyandsubtlyshapingourteaching philosophies,course levelpedagogies,andbeliefsaboutstudents bodiestothe detrimentofagrowingpopulationofcollegestudentswithdisabilities.asour writingpedagogiescometodependmoreandmoreonnewmedia,weneedtoask hownewmediacanserveeverystudent disabledandnondisabledalike inthe nameof universalusability (Horton2006,xvi).Morespecifically,weneedtoask: Towhatextentareournewmediawritingpedagogiesandenvironmentsaccessible tostudentswithdisabilities?howseamlesslyarestudentswithdisabilities(and theirsubcultures)integratedintoourpedagogicalenvironments?whichstudents haveanadvantageinwritingcoursesthatpresumeaminimumlevelofphysical agilityanddexterity,nottomentionaminimumlevelofvisionandhearing?what effectsonlearningoutcomeswillaccommodationshaveondisabledstudents?in otherwords,willaccommodationsservemerelyasinferiorsubstitutesforprimary 1

2 instructionthatcomeschanneledthroughnewmedia?howdowedesignour coursesforuniversalusabilitysothatweconsider,attheinceptionandthroughthe entirelifeofourcourses,theneedsofstudentswithdisabilities? Inthiswebtext,Iexploretheintersectionofdisabilityandnewmediathroughthe redhotlensofpodcasting.fromdukeuniversity snow infamousexperimentto outfit1600enteringfreshmenwithipodsin2004(belanger2005),tothegrowing popularityofappleitunesasarepositoryformorethanjustmusicfiles(e.g. considertherecentadditionofitunesuniversityandapple salreadyimpressivelist ofclientsinhighereducation),totheopencoursewaremovement(mostnotablyat MIT)andtheroleofaudioandvideopodcastingindistributingcoursestothepublic ( TakeAny2007 ),podcastingisrealizingitspotential,inconcertwithotherforms ofnewmedia,toreshapethenatureoflearning whereittakesplace,when,how, andforwhichstudents.theexcitementaboutpodcastinginmainstreampodcasting discourseispalpable,almostembarrassinglyso.however,whatextentdoesthis discoursemakeableistassumptions?towhatextentdoesitdiscusstheneedfor alternativeaccommodationsforhardofhearinganddeafstudents?despitethe increasedvisibilityofdisabilityasapedagogical,scholarly,andsocialissue(as opposedtomerelyapersonalormedicalproblem),disabilityisvirtuallyinvisiblein podcastingdiscourse.ifwearecommittedtoleveragingtheaffordancesof podcastingtechnologyinourclassrooms,thenweneedtodesignpodcast ready pedagogiesthataresensitivetotheneedsofadiversestudentbody. LimitingaccessinthePodcastingBible Accessibilityisvirtuallyinvisibleasatopicinmainstreampodcastingdiscourse. NowhereisthismoreevidentthaninthePodcastingBible(2007)bySteveMackand MitchRatcliffe,a570 pagetomethatbyitssheersizeandnamealoneshouldhave somethingtosayaboutdesigningaudioandvideopodcastsforpeoplewith disabilities.indeed,thebiblecomesawfullycloseinafewkeypassagesto consideringtherolethatwritingcanplayinmakingpodcastsmoreaccessible.but becausethebibleisinformedbyapresumptionoffullhearingandseeingonboth sidesofthepodcastingtransaction,itcontinuallystopsshortofworkingoutthe implicationsofitsown easeofuse argument(p.397).apodcastthatiseasytouse andreadilyavailableisnotonethatis,strictlyspeaking,accessibletopeoplewith disabilities,becauseinthebiblemackandratcliffehavealreadyassumedthat designersanduserscanhearaudioandseevideowellenoughnottorequire assistanceintheformoftranscripts,longtextdescriptions,orcaptions.asaresult, 2

3 theauthorsmissanopportunitytoexploretheimportanceoftextalternativesfor makingaudioandvideopodcastseasiertouseforbothdeafandnon deafusers,for example.itisnotthattheauthorsexplicitlyrefertotheirrelevanceoftext alternativesandothersupplementssuchascaptions.thebiblesimplymakesno referencetothem ortopeoplewithdisabilities. ThePodcastingBiblereducesaccessibilitytoavailability.WhenMackandRatcliffe suggestthatolderpodcastfilesshouldbereadilyavailabletousers(ratherthan purgedintheinterestofsavingmoneyorfreeingupdiskspace),theyframe accessibilityasatechnicalproblem: Podcasting shistoryisevaporatingasquicklyasstoragelimitsforhostingaccounts fillup.wecan ttellyouwhat[pioneeringpodcaster]adamcurrysaid,because there snocopyofthefileaccessiblethroughanylinksexposedbygoogleandother searchengines.podcastersareoftenforcedtopurgetheirarchivestokeeptheir costslow,yetalltheseolderprogramsmakeupthe longtail, thevastcatalogof contentthatcanservetheincrediblydiverseinterestsoflistenersformanyyears, butonlyiftheprogramsremainavailable.(p.32,myemphasis) Hereandelsewhere,accessibilityrefersnarrowlytothepublicavailabilityof podcastfilesonawebserver,andnottothebroader,user centerednotionof accommodatingtechnologytopeople(dobrin,2004).availabilityisobviouslya cruciallyimportantcriterionwhen historyisevaporating. Indeed,Mackand Ratcliffewritethatthe mostimportantideatokeepinmindasyoubeginto produce podcastshowsisthat Yourshowsneedtobeaccessibleforalongtimein ordertoearnthemostthatyoucanfromyourefforts (2007,p.83).Butavailability, whichiswhattheymeanby accessibleforalongtime, isonlyonedimensionof accessibility.forthosepotentialuserswhocannothear,availabilityismeaningless whenthefileand/oraccompanyingdocumentsdonotadheretowebaccessibility guidelinesthatcall,amongotherthings,fortextalternativestomultimediacontent (e.g.seeguideline1.2ofwebcontentaccessibilityguidelines2.0inwcagworking Group,2007).Becauseaccessistreatedasabinary youeitherhaveaccessoryou donot MackandRatcliffe(2007,p.393)inevitablyconsidertheobverseof availability i.e.contentrestriction inadiscussionof [s]ubscriptionsthatlimit accesstoyourpodcast. Inasectionentitled ControllingAccesstoYourPodcast (p. 397),theydiscusstheimportanceoflimitingaccesstosubscribersandproviding userswiththeconvenienceto getyourpodcast. Butbydefiningaccessaseither availableorrestricted,thebiblefailstoconsiderthebroaderissueof accommodatingtechnologytopeoplewithdisabilities. 3

4 Atthesametime,theBibleseemsonthevergeofincludingadefinitivediscussion ofthisbroadernotionofaccessibilityasaccommodation.whenmackandratcliffe discussenhancedpodcasts,metadata,andrsstags,theyopenthedoortotherole thatwrittentextsplay(asopposedtoaudioorvideoonly)inpodcastproduction. Althoughtheprocessofeditingpodcastsforcontent,quality,flow,andconvenience (pp.137,207)doesnot,accordingtomackandratcliffe,includecaptioningvideoor transcribingaudiocontent,theprocesstheydescribeofmakingpodcastsavailable tothepublicdoesincludetranslatingsomeoftheaudioandvideocontentinto writtentext.forexample,thebiblediscussesaddingtitlesandpowerpointslidesto videopodcasts(pp.226 7),andlogos,chaptermarkers,images,andlinkstoaudio podcasts(pp ).Theprocessofaddingmultiplechaptermarkerstoanaudio podcastisverysimilartothe(admittedlymuchmoretimeconsuming)processof addingsub titlestoavideopodcast,butthebiblestopsshortoftakingitsdiscussion oftextualsupplementstoitslogicalconclusion.thesameistrueforthebible s discussionofmetadataandrsstags.thebookstressestheimportanceofencoding asmuchmetadataaspossible (p.279)abouteachpodcast nameortitle,an author(you),andpossiblyadescription (p.279).likewise,theauthorsrefertothe importanceofdescriptivetextinrssfeeds:titles,links,andshortdescriptions,but alsoblogannouncementsforeachnewpodcastthatcontain,inadditiontorsslinks, shownotesorlinkstootherwebsitesmentionedinthepodcast (p.322). Presumably,shownotesinablogentrymightcontainalongerdescriptionofthe show,maybeevenatranscript.however,thebiblemakesnoreferenceto transcripts,captions,ordescriptionslongerthanoneortwosentences,evenasit openstodoortothepossibilitythatwrittensupplementstoaudioandvideo podcastsmightbeamoreaccommodatingsolutionformanydisabledand nondisabledpeople. Despitereducingaccessibilitytoavailabilityandnothavinganythingtosayabout accommodatingpodcaststopeoplewithdisabilities,mackandratcliffecouldstill haveintegratedamuchbroadernotionofaccessibilityintothecurrentframework ofthepodcastingbible.todoso,however,wouldrequireagreatersensitivityto humandifference,awillingness toviewbodiesandmindsasinherentlyand wonderfullydivergent (Lewiecki Wilson&Brueggemann,2008,p.1).Itwould requirenotonlyagreaterfamiliaritywithwebaccessibilityguidelines(e.g.see WCAGWorkingGroup,2007)andtheirtransformativeeffectsoncurrentpodcasting values,butalsoawillingnesstoconsiderthepossibilitythatdeafandhardof hearingpeoplemightactuallywanttoparticipate inthepodcastingrevolution. 4

5 Indeed,theyareparticipatingatthisverymoment,thoughattimeswith unnecessarydifficulty. Onthefly podcasting:acritique Oneaspectofpodcastingthatmakesitsoattractivetoproponentsishowquickly podcastscanberecordedandmadeavailabletousers.whenappliedtoinstructorgeneratedpodcasts,thisviewmightbesummarizedasfollows:themoreplanning, writing,andtimepodcastingtakes,thelessattractiveitbecomesasaclassroom supplement.granted,thisisprobablytrueofjustabouteverything;noinstructor hastheluxuryofunlimitedtimetoprepareforclass.butpodcastingseems particularlytailoredto onthefly approachesthatrequirelittleplanningorediting. Servicessuchasgabcast.comandhipcast.com,forexample,allowmembersto recordanduploadpodcastsoverthetelephone.theproblemwith onthefly podcastingisthatittendstoexacerbatetheproblemofinaccessiblenewmediafor peoplewhoaredeafandhardofhearingbecause1)instructorswhocreatepodcasts arenotlikelytorecognizetheneedfortranscriptsorlongtextdescriptions, regardlessofhowmuchtimetheyspendrecordingandeditingpodcasts,2)creating transcriptstakestime,tools,andknowledgeoftranscriptionandspeechrecognition technologies,3)creatingtranscriptsseemstodefeatthewholepurposeof podcasting,and4)someofthetoolsdesignedtofacilitatetherecordingofpodcasts, suchashipcast.com,donotallowforpost productionediting.evenifauniversity s disabilityservicesofficehastheresourcestocreateawrittentranscriptforevery onthefly podcast,bythetimeatranscriptisready,thecontent,generated justin time bytheinstructorislikelytobeusefulorevenlessoutdated. Podcastingsupportsmultiplepedagogiesandapproaches,someofwhichwill undoubtedlyinvolvesignificantplanning,elaboratescripts,andmajorediting.ido notmeantosuggestthateverypodcastiscreatedandposted onthefly. Ialso recognizethepedagogicalvalueofhavingstudentscreatetheirownpodcasts,and theseassignmentswill,ifdonewell,consumeasignificantamountofourstudents timeandenergy.nevertheless,iwouldarguethat,regardlessoftimeandenergy spent,atypicalpodcasterisnotgoingtobeawareoftheneedorrationalefor accessiblepodcasting.moreover,instructorsneedtobemoreconcernedabout approachestopodcastingsuchas onthefly thatareespeciallyill suitedtothe needsofdeafandhardofhearingstudents.inthissection,iexploretheimplications of onthefly podcastingforpeoplewithdisabilitiesbylookingcloselyatone podcastingarticleinthefieldofcompositionandrhetoric:stevend.krause s(2006) 5

6 BroadcastComposition:UsingAudioFilesandPodcastsinanOnlineWriting Course. PublishedinFall2006aspartofaspecialissueofComputersand CompositionOnlineon Soundin/asCompositionalSpace, Krause sessayhelps teachersofwritingunderstandandmakeuseofanemergingmedium.krause reportsonhisexperiencesasaninstructorcreatingpodcastsforhisstudents,as wellashisstudents surveyresponsestothosepodcasts,aspartofanupper level onlineenglishcoursecalled Writing,Style,andTechnology. Krauseisclearlyattentivetothechallengesofteachingadiversestudentbody.Yet themeaningheassignstodiversity,interestingly,doesnotextendtostudentswith disabilities: Krauseidentifies adiversegroupofstudents inhisenglishdepartment,but onlyintermsofthediversityoftheirmajorfields(englisheducationmajors, and studentsfromourprogramsinprofessionalwriting,technicalwriting, creativewriting,journalism,andpublicrelations,alongwithstudents minoringinwriting ). WhenKrausedescribesthe basicdemographics ofhisonlinecourse,he distinguisheshisstudentsonthebasisofgenderandgradelevelonly. ThemeaningKrauseassignsto non traditionalstudents doesnotinclude studentswithdisabilities.non traditionalstudentsaredefinedas first generationorotherwisenon traditionalcollegestudents,oftenfromworking classbackgrounds. They tendtohaveworkandfamilycommitmentsthat makeattendingafullloadoftraditionalcoursesoncampusdifficult. While studentswithdisabilitiesmightalsobedefinedasnon traditional,krause definesnon traditionalintermsofworkingclassbackground,workand familyobligations,andfirst generationcollegestudents. Krauseprivilegesdiversityinlearningstyleswhenhereferstotheneedto us[e]differenttechnologies(likeaudio)tofacilitatedifferentkindsof learningstyles. Whileheisskepticalofstudents reasonsfornotlisteningto [hispodcasts], henotesthatsomeofhisstudents saidthatdidn tlistento recordingsbecauseoftheirownlearningstylesandpreferences. Krausedistinguishesstudentsonthebasisofprimarymodeofinstruction i.e.onlinevs. theirtraditionalcounterparts andrespectsthedifferences betweenthem. Iamnotsurewewanttoerasethosedifferencesinthefirst place. 6

7 Krausedistinguishesstudentsonthebasisofhowmuchexperiencethey havehadreadingtheory. [F]ewhavehadexperiencereadingand discussingtextsthatfocusonwritinginovertandtheoreticalways. Krauseacknowledgesthattherearediversewaysofcreatingand distributingpodcasts. Iwouldn twanttoclaimthatiamdescribingthe onlywaytorecordandpublishaudiofiles oreventhebestway. Healso includesthreeexternallinksto differentwaysofaccomplishingthesetasks, butnoneofthelinkscontaininformationonaccessiblepodcasting.oneofthe links,however,doesincludeanexternallinktoinformationon hearing conservation (i.e.protectinghearingfromprolongedexposuretoloud sounds). Krausecallsattentiontothedifferencesamongfacultywhoteachthe course. Differentfacultyteachingthecourseemphasizedifferent componentsof[thecourse]. Krause sessayshowsaconcernonmultiplelevelswithdiversityanddifference: gradelevel,gender,class,labor,generation,online/traditional,learningstyle,major field,methodofcoursecasting,andmethodofteachingthecourse.haditbeen included,disabilitymighthavecomplementedthislistofdifferencesnicely.but disabilityoftendoesmorethancomplementanexistingsystemofdifferences (Davis,2006,p.233;Mitchell&Snyder,2006,p.209).Theinclusionofdisabilityas anaspectofhumandiversitythreatenstodestabilizethevalueassignedto podcastingitselfbycallingattentiontotheableistassumptions(linton2006) lurkinginourpedagogies.thecriticalaxisofdisability/abilityunsettlesourableist assumptionsaboutstudents bodiesandminds.topodcastwithdisabilityinmindis tobesensitivetohowourapproachestopodcastingcanexcludesomeofour students,evenwhenweexplicitlyforegroundtheimportanceofdiversity,askrause hasdone.thenotionofaccessiblepodcastingalsoopensthedoortoabroader understandingofnewmediaasinformedandsupportedbyaccessiblealternatives (e.g.texttranscripts)andembeddedfeatures(e.g.closedoropencaptionsfor video). LikethePodcastingBible,Krause sessayseemsattimestobeonthevergeof announcingtheimportanceofextendedwrittentextfordeafandhardofhearing podcastsubscribers.forexample,whendescribinghowtosetupapodcast friendly blog,krausewritesthat it sprobablyagoodideatoprovidesometexttoexplain whatiscontainedintheaudiofile. Elsewhere,Krausedescribeshowoneofhis coursepagesontheecollegewebsitecontains somewrittennotesandaudio 7

8 commentary. Krause sviewofwrittentextsthoughisconstrainedbyatechnocratic approachtoaccessibility.liketheauthorsofthepodcastingbible,krauseis concernedwithaccessibilityonlyasatechnicalproblem.whendescribingthe uniquechallenges facinghisstudents,henotesthattheymaynothavehad easy accesstotechnology. The technicalelements ofthecourse putanadditional strainonstudentswhohavenopreviousexperience withhtml.interestingly, hearingisalsoviewedasatechnicalproblem.krausedefinesthemp3formatas stillthebestformatforbasicaudiofilesthatcanbeheardbyuserswithlessthan sophisticatedcomputers. Inotherwords,theassumptionhereisthatcomputers havehearing/audioproblems,notusers.usersareassumedtopossessfullhearing andseeing;problemswithaccessareassumedtobeeithertechnicalortheresultof alackofexperiencewithcomputers.byfocusingonhow thetypicallevelof technologicalliteracy ofstudentsinthisclasshascertainlychangedinrecent years, Krausbypassesotherchangesintheacademy,particularlythephenomenal increaseofcollegestudentswithdisabilitiesthatmayarguablybehavingaslargeof aneffectonourpedagogiesaschangesintechnologicalliteracy.accordingtothe U.S.DepartmentofEducation sofficeforcivilrights(1999), In1978,2.6percentof full time/first timecollegefreshmenreportedadisability.in1996,itincreasedto9 percent(morethan140,000).thismeansthenumberofpersonswithdisabilities goingtocollegehasmorethantripled. Foregroundingdisabilityalongsidetechnical know howandcomputeraccessmayresultinamorenuancedandcomplex understandingofthe uniquechallenges facingourstudentsinthenewmedia classroom. Theroadblocktoabroaderunderstandingofthe uniquechallenges facingour studentsinthenewmediaclassroomisasetofnormativeconstructionsinthetext thatpassascommonsense.the you inkrause stextisanableistandaudistfiction thatclassifiesallusersasseeing,hearing,andinfullpossessionofthefinemotor skillsrequiredtomanipulatemouse,keyboard,touchscreen,keypad,etc. 1 In Krause stext,non standardusersareinvisible.thehegemonyofableismerases differencesandreplacesthemwithauniversal,hearing you : Soundfilesarelikeotherkindsoffilesyoucanuploadtoaserverandthenaccess eitherdirectlyorthroughalink.so,forexample,whenyoulinktoanhtmlpage, 1 Ableismisdefinedas discriminationinfavoroftheable bodied (Reader sdigestoxford WordfinderascitedinLinton2006:161).Audismisdefinedas discriminationagainst individualsbasedonhearingability (Bauman2004).Discriminationcantakemanyforms. Itmaybeinvisible,subtle,andseeminglyanti discriminatory. 8

9 yourbrowserwillopenanotherwebpage.whenyoulinktoajpeg,yourbrowser willshowthegraphicinthemainviewingwindow.whenyoulinktoa.docfile, usuallyyourbrowserwilllaunchawordprocessingapplicationtoviewthefile.and whenyoulinktoanmp3file,yourbrowserwilleitheropenitdirectlyandplayit,or, inthecaseofsomeolderbrowsers,itwillsavethesoundfiletoyourcomputersoit canbeplayedlateron. Inthisexcerpt,theprocessofaccessingWebcontentispresentedassimpleand straightforward,yetthissimplicityisachievedattheexclusionofothermeansof browsingtheweb(i.e.viascreenreaders,screenmagnifiers,text onlyorkeyboardonlynavigation,etc).theimaginedreader( you )isamonolithicandunchanging massofableistassumptions.differenceandmultiplicityarenotassociatedwith users,sinceevery you ispresumablythesameaseveryother. Itiswithinthecontextofnormativepodcastingthat onthefly recordingand uploadingseemcommonplace.if you andyourlistenersarepresumedtobe hearingandable bodied,thenobviouslythereisnoneedtohasslewithwritten textsorotheraccommodations.accordingtothisview,excessivewritingistobe avoidedaseitherextraneoustothemainpurposeofpodcastingortootimeconsuming.krauseissympatheticwithbothreasons.hewiselyrejectstranscribing hisface to facelecturesforhisonlinestudents,becausehe didn tseethepointin creatingacomplexanddetailedtextthatstudentsmightfindchallengingtoread simplytoexplainothertextsthatstudentsalreadyfoundcomplexandchallengingto read. ButKrauseseemsmoreconcernedwithhowmuchtimetranscriptionislikely totake i.e. itwouldbetootime consumingtotranslate thelectures,and recordingandpostingtheseaudiofileswouldtakelesstimethanactuallywriting outmylectures. Healso take[s]comfortinthefactthat[he]didnothavetospend atremendousamountoftimeandresourcestocreateteachingmaterialsthatwere usedonlybyafewstudents. Hedirectlylinkspodcastingtohisgoalofavoiding writing(andthussavingtime):while ithelpstohavesomegoodnotes when recordingaudio, oneofthereasonswhy[he]becameinterestedinrecordingaudio foronlineinstructionwastoavoidhavingtowritealotoftextinthefirstplace. Writingisnotonlytime consuming;itthreatenstheinformalcharacterthatkrause associateswiththepodcastingmediumitself: [T]hetechnology...lendsitselftoa briefand onthefly format. Krausedescribeshispodcastsas moreopen ended andsimilartothecommentsimightgivetoaface to faceclassafterpassingbacka writingassignmentorasawayofupdatingthemaboutfutureduedatesand projects. Thepinnacleof onthefly podcastingisprovidedbytheimageofkrause recordingapodcastfromhiscellphone onthestreetwhilewalking[his]dog. 9

10 Becausepodcastsgeneratedoveratelephone(madepossiblethroughservicessuch asgabcast.comandhipcast.com)cannotbeeditedortranscribed,theyreflecta troubling phoneitin mentalitytowardspeoplewithdisabilities.ifpodcastingis inherentlywell suitedto onthefly usesthatrequirelittletime,planning,or writing,thenweneedtoaskwhetherpodcastingtoolsandapproachescanberetooledtoservetheneedsofstudentswithdisabilities,andwhetherinstructorsare willingtoputintheextratimetomakepodcastsaccessible. WhilethevalueKrauseattachestopodcastingisatleastpartlydependentonhow muchtimepodcasting onthefly saveshim,healsorecognizestheimportanceof advancedplanningandscriptwriting.eventhoughhehas notdoneanyscriptwritingyet, headmitsinhindsightthathis originalrecordingscouldhave benefitedfromsomebetterplanningandwithsomemorepractice. However, practiceandplanningcontinuetotakeabackseattothegoalofsavingtime.inthe trade offbetween betterqualityaudiofiles and the timesaving valueof recordingaudiofiles, thelatterwinsout.hewritesthatwhilebetterplanningand morepractice wouldhaveresultedinbetterqualityaudiofiles,italsobringsinto questionthe timesaving valueofrecordingaudiofilesinthefirstplace. An approachtopodcastingthatvaluessavingtimeoverproducinghighqualityand carefullyplannedrecordingsismorelikelytoresultininaccessiblepodcasts.a similartensionbetweentimeandqualityplaysoutontheaudiofilethatservesas theconclusiontokrause sessay.entitled TheFuture, thisenhancedpodcastgives listenersachancetohearkrausereflectonwhathehaslearned.whilethepodcast isnottranscribed(andthusremainsinaccessibletosomepeople),krausedoes provideanoutlineofhistalkintheessayitself,andtheenhancedaudiofileis populatedwithaseriesofkeypointsonslides.ontheaudiofile,krausecalls attentiontothelimitationsofaudioblogger(anowdefunctserviceforrecording podcastsoverthetelephone),and,byextension,thelimitationsofthe onthefly varietyofpodcasting. Healsoacknowledgesthat [q]ualitymattersandquality takestimeandpractice, moretimethanhehadanticipated.ultimately,however,he rejectsthesolutionhiscritiquesupplies: IsupposeIcouldrecordmoreelaborate andformalclassroomnotesthisway[i.e.byavoidingtelephoneservicessuchas Audiobloggerandtakingmuchmoretimetoplan,script,andedit],butitdoesn t seemquiterighttome,oratleastitdoesn tseemrightwiththewaythatiimagine audiofilesformyclass. WhatseemsrighttoKrauseisthatinstructor generated podcastsshouldbeinformal(noelaboratescripts)andinvolvelittleadvanced planning.forstudentswithdisabilities,thequestioniswhetheranapproachto instructor generatedpodcastspredicatedonsavingtimeandavoidingwritingcan 10

11 bereconciledwiththetime,care,writing,andplanningrequiredtomakingpodcasts accessibletostudentswithdisabilities. Podcasting2.0:TowardsanaccessibleWeb Makingpodcastsaccessibleisaprettystraightforwardprocess.Inthecaseofan audio onlypodcast,theproducer(orsomeoneelse)simplycreatesawritten transcriptandmakesitreadilyavailable(e.g.withintherssenclosure,asalinkona website,inthelyricstabonitunes,etc.).forexample,mignonfogarty,hostand authorofthepopulargrammargirlpodcast, publish[es]aword for word transcriptofeachshow ( Don tquit 2007).Indeed,allofthepodcastepisodeson Fogarty squickanddirtytipsnetworkaretranscribed(e.g.mightymommy,sales Guy,Get it DoneGuy,Make it GreenGirl,etc.).Anothernotableexampleisthe weeklysecuritynow!podcastproducedbygibsonresearchcorporation(grc), whichincludesaudiofilesandtranscriptsinmultipleformatsforeachpodcast episode(seefigure1). ButGRC smultimodal,accessibleapproachis unusualamongpodcasts.whileonemight expecttofindshorttextsummariesto accompanylinkstoaudiopodcastspostedon blogs,rarelyistheremuchmore.accessibility (whenitreferseithertomakingtechnologies universallyusableortomaking accommodationsforpeoplewithdisabilities)is virtuallyinvisibleinmainstreamdiscourse aboutpodcasting.evenpodcaststhatare principallyconcernedwithdisabilityand accessibilityissuescannotalwaysbecounted ontobemodelsofgood(accessible)practicea coupleyearsago.forexample,amoderatoron AccessifyForum.comnotedtheironyofa Figure1.Thepodcastformatsavailableon thesecuritynow!podcastincludehigh qualityaudio,lowerqualityaudio,aweb pagewithanysupplementarynotes,web pagetranscripts,textfiletranscripts,andpdf transcripts. Source: 11

12 podcastshowaboutwebaccessibilitythatwasnotitselfaccessibletopeoplewith hearingdisabilities.referringspecificallytothewebaxepodcastshow,the moderatorwrites: shametherearenotranscriptsoranythingfromthosepodcasts ihopei mnotthe onlyonewhoseestheironyin*purely*podcastingaboutaccessibility Inasecondposttothisthread,aforummemberagreeswiththemoderator: Ironyindeed. Surelysomeonecouldgetaccesstotheservicesofaprofessionaltypistwhowill typefasterthanapresentercouldtalkinapodcast.atthatspeedevenat professionalratesitshouldn tcostmorethanacoupleofpintstotranscribe. AndthenoneofthetwoproducersoftheWebAxepodcastresponds: ThisisDennisfromWebAxe.IrealizehowironicitisthatI mdoingapodcaston accessibility,whichinnatureofapodcast,isnotaccessible.idon tmakeanymoney fromthepodcastsoican taffordatranscriberfortext onlyversionsofthe podcasts.besidesthat,ihopeyouwillfindmypodcast/bloginformativeandvalid. Thanks. Dennisexplainsawaytheneedforatranscriptonfinancialgrounds( Ican tafforda transcriber ),andthenassumesthathis podcast/blog willbe informativeand valid anyway.butpodcastswithouttranscriptsarenotinformative tosaythe least for listeners whoaredeaforhardofhearing.granted,thisthreadisfrom 2005,whenpodcastingwasstillinitsinfancy.Nevertheless,itpointstoatroubling lackofawarenessofboth1)themeanstomakepodcastsaccessibleand2)theneed foraccommodationsatall,evenwhenthepodcasterspresumablyspecializein makingwebtechnologiesaccessible.dennisassumesthatmakingpodcasts accessiblerequiresaburdensomefinancialinvestmentaswellasasignificant investmentinoutsourcedhumanlabor(transcribers).bothoftheseassumptions needtobechallengedifwehopetochangeperceptionsaboutaccessibilityand increaseawarenessoftheneedforaccessiblealternatives.atthetimeofthis writing,webaxecontinuestoproducenewaudiopodcastsaboutaccessibilitybut notaccessiblepodcasts,sinceeachpodcastisaccompaniedonlybyashorttext summary. 12

13 SowhatwouldeasetheburdenonpodcasterslikeDennistomakepodcasts accessible?aboveall,weneedtoinstillinbothbuddingandexperiencedpodcasters thatwrittentranscriptsarecrucialcomponentsofaudiopodcasts,justascaptions (closedoropen)arecrucialcomponentsofvideopodcasts,neitheradd onsnor burdens.accessibilityneedstobebuiltintothedesignofwebsitesfromtheirvery inception,ratherthanafterthefact.likewise,accessibilityneedstobeanticipatedin podcast(andmultimedia)design.aspartofthiseffort,weneedtocontinuetoteach ourstudentsandcolleagues 1. Aboutthewealthofoptionsavailablefortranscribingaudiopodcastsand captioningvideopodcasts.contrarytoexpectations,makingwebtechnologies accessibledoesnothavetorequirealargefinancialinvestment,asteep learningcurve,oralengthytimecommitment.someoftheseoptionsare discussedbelow. 2. Howaccessibilitydrivesuniversalusability.Acommonrefrainamong accessibilityexpertsisthataccessiblemediahavethepotentialtobenefitall users,notjustuserswhoaredisabled. Universaldesignisanapproachto designthatattemptstoincorporatefeaturesthatmakethingsusablebymore thanjustthe average person.byanticipatingtheneedsofallpeople,things canbedesignedinawaythatmakesthemuniversallyusable (Horton,2006, p.9).inanarticleonsection508standards,kimguenther(2002,p.75) suggests, Incorporatingthesestandardswillactuallyincreasethevisibility andtheaudiencetoyourwebsite...designthatiseffectiveforpeoplewith physicalandvisualimpairmentsalsoaidstheelderly. Orconsiderthe potentialbenefitsofcaptionedtelevisionforhearing,hard of hearing,and deafviewers.captionson.comestimatesthat morethan51millionpeople can,anddo,usecaptionstobringwordstolife. Butofthisgroupof Americans,only 31million are deaforhard of hearing, leavingquitea largegroupofpeoplewhoarehearingbutneverthelessbenefitfrom captionedprogramming.thisgroupincludesesllearners,childrenand adultslearningtoread,olderamericansatriskforalzheimer s,andfamilies enjoyingtvtimetogetheratlowervolumes(captionson.com).inthecaseof audiopodcasts,fulltexttranscriptsallowforseamlessindexingbysearch engines,makingiteasierforpotentiallistenerstofindpodcastsontopicsof interesttothem.whileaudioandvideosearchenginessuchas everyzing.comrelyonvoicerecognitiontechnologytoindexcontentfrom audioandvideofiles,themajorsearchenginescontinuetorelyonsurface 13

14 leveltextfeatures(title,description,tags)toindexmultimediacontent. Transcriptsofaudio onlypodcasts,whileimportantinmeetingaccessibility standards(e.g a&bofsection508,guideline1.2ofwcag2.0),can alsobeacrucialcomponentinmarketingpodcastssincetranscriptsaidin searchengineoptimization. 3. Thatmakinginformationtechnologiesaccessibleisnotonlytherightthingto dobutalsolegallymandated.section508,a1998amendmenttothe RehabilitationActof1973, cover[s]thefullrangeofelectronicand informationtechnologiesinthefederalsector,includingthoseusedfor communication,duplication,computing,storage,presentation,control, transportandproduction. Butwhilethese standardscovertechnology procuredbyfederalagenciesundercontractwithaprivateentity (section508.gov),theyarebeingmorewidelyadopted.accordingto Guenther(2002,p.73), AlthoughtheoriginalintentofSection508wasto treatfairlyfederalemployeesandthosedisabledindividualswhousefederal Websites,thelawhasbeeninterpretedmorebroadlytoalsoincludeall statesreceivingmoneyfromthefederalgovernmentundertheassistive TechnologyAct. Thus,becauseinstitutionsofhighereducationareeligible toreceivemoneyundertheassistivetechnologyact,theyneedtobein compliancewith508standards(e.g.,seekansasstate saccessibility Memorandum).Individualstatesmayalsopasslegislationrequiringits publicuniversitiestocomplywithsection508(e.g.seethecaliforniastate UniversitySystem saccessibletechnologyinitiative).inaddition,the AmericanswithDisabilitiesActof1990(ADA)andSection504ofthe RehabilitationAct arecivilrightsstatutesthatprohibitdiscriminationon thebasisofdisability,obligatecollegesanduniversitiestomakecertain adjustmentsandaccommodations,andoffertopersonswithdisabilitiesthe opportunitytoparticipatefullyinallinstitutionalprogramsandactivities (fromtexastech soperatingprocedures).titleiioftheadacoverspublic accommodationsbystateandlocalgovernments(includingpublic education),andtitleiiicoverspublicaccommodationsintheprivatesector (includingnonprofitsandprivateschools).finally,section255ofthe TelecommunicationsActof1996requiresmanufacturerstoensuretheir telecommunicationsproductsareaccessibletopeoplewithdisabilities.the OfficeforCivilRights(OCR)intheU.S.DepartmentofEducationis responsiblefor enforc[ing]severalfederalcivilrightslawsthatprohibit discriminationinprogramsoractivitiesthatreceivefederalfinancial 14

15 assistancefromthedepartmentofeducation, includingsection504,titleii oftheada,andothers( AboutOCR, 2005). InFY2007,theDepartment[of Education]received5,894complaintsofdiscriminationandresolved5,737 (FY2007PerformanceandAccountabilityReport).Fifty onepercentofthese complaintsweredisabilityrelated,byfarthelargestgroup(with race/nationalorigincomplaintscominginadistantsecondat16%). ThisapproachmirrorsWebAIM scaseforaccessibility: It sthesmartthingtodo, It stherightthingtodo, and Itmaybethelaw ( SolutionsforBusiness ). However,seriousobstaclesandskepticismremain.JaneSeale(2006:81)writesthat accessibilityawarenessislowamongstlearningtechnologists, includinglimitedor noknowledgeof508andnegativeattitudestowardsaccessibilityamong webmasters.itisnotuncommon,ifmyownexperienceisanyindication,for teacherstoaffirmtheimportanceofaccessibletechnologywhilebalkingatthetime commitmentandsteeplearningcurveinvolvedin,say,transcribingaudio.ihave alsoheardcolleaguesworryabouthowinstructioninaccessibilitywillnegatively impactin serviceteacherswhoarelearninghowtobringpodcastingintotheir classroomsbutlackconfidenceandexperiencewithnewmedia.theseteachers,it hasbeensuggested,mayturnawayfromnewmediaaltogetheriftheythinkitistoo difficultortime consumingtoimplement.clearly,manypeoplecontinuetothinkof accessibilityasatime consumingsupplement.wethusneedtocontinuethe importantworkofdevelopingeasy to usetoolstomakethewebaccessible,and continuetotalkaboutaccessibilityascentral(andnotperipheral)tothedesignof multimodaltexts.wealsoneedtobepracticalandrealistic.alocalaudiopodcast producedforasmallgroupofhearingstudents(withnoplanstoreusethepodcast infuturesemesters)doesnotrequirethesameattentiontoaccessibilitystandards asapodcastproducedpriortothestartofthesemester,oronepostedona departmentalwebsite(withalarge,diverse,andunknownaudience).thelesswe knowabouttheneedsandpreferencesofspecificmembersofouraudience,the morewehavetoassumethataccommodations(transcripts,captions)areneeded. Myownapproachtoaccessibilityemphasizesbodilydifferences,webaccessibility guidelines(especiallyw3c swebcontentaccessibilityguidelines),andthegrowing wealthofaccessibilitytools(includingvideomoddingapps). 15

16 Startwiththebody Mainstreamdiscourseaboutpodcastingrarelydiscussestheaffordancesofthe body.itrarelymakesexplicittheminimumrequirementsforparticipating,atthe levelofembodiment,orthebodilydifferencesamongusersandproducersthat threatentoexcludesomepeoplefromprofitablyusingwebaudioandvideo. Instead,mainstreamdiscourseaboutpodcastingtendstoassumeacertainideal bodytype ahearing,seeing,speaking,flexible,mouse moving(asopposedto keyboard using)user.becausetheminimumrequirementsforparticipatingare assumed,thosewhowriteaboutpodcastingaregenerallynotawareoftheneedor importanceofaccommodatingtechnologytouserswithdisabilities. Whatifourunderstandingofwebaudioandvideowasgroundedonadeep awarenessofthebodyandbodilydifference?whatifourmainstreamdiscourses didnotautomaticallyassumethatpodcasting,intheabsenceoftranscriptsorother accommodations,wasaccessibletoallusers?whatifwewerecommittedtoteasing apartthedifferencesbetweenaccessibilityandavailability,insteadofassumingthat accessibilitywasequivalenttomakingiteasyforanidealusertodownloadfiles? InDisabilityandtheTeachingofWriting(2008),CynthiaLewiecki Wilson& BrendaJoBrueggemannaskustoreflectonthebodyandbodilydifferenceinthe contextofwritinginstruction: Howcanwebetterunderstandlearningandwriting asembodiedpractices,foregroundingbodilydifferenceinsteadofdemandingbodily perfection? (3).Appliedtowebaudioandvideo,thisquestionurgesustoconsider theextenttowhichourunderstandingofpodcasting(asreflectedindiscourse)is groundedonbodilyperfection,thewaysinwhichthebodyisabsentfrom podcastingdiscourse,andwhetherourconceptionsofusersarenormative(e.g. insofarashearingisrequiredforconformance). Designfordifferenceattheinceptionofaproject Weneedtothinkofpodcastingnotas onthefly butassituatedinthelivesof studentswithdiverseabilitiesandneeds.ratherthanmakeourmultimodaltexts accessibleafterthefact(itisillegalunderadatomakeaccommodationsonanad hocorasneededbasis),weneedtodesignforaccessibilityattheinceptionofour Webprojects.Anaccessible(universal)Webisgoodforeveryone: The underpinningprincipleofuniversaldesignisthatindesigningwithdisabilityin mindabetterproductwillbedevelopedthatalsobetterservestheneedsofall users,includingthosewhoarenotdisabled (Seale2006,p.83).Tobuildan 16

17 accessibleweb,weneedtoimmerseourselvesinaccessibilitystandards,principally W3C swebcontentaccessibilityguidelines(wcag)andsection508.wcagisbuilt onthreelevelsofconformance:a(lowest),aa,andaaa(highest).itisbeyondthe scopeofthistexttoprovideadetailedreviewofguidelines;anumberofgood checklists(for508andwcag2.0)andcomparisonsareavailableonline.of particularinteresttoaudioandvideopodcastersarethefollowingguidelines: Provideawrittentranscriptforaudio onlycontent WCAG2.0,Guideline1.2.1: Analternativefortime basedmediaisprovided thatpresentsequivalentinformationforprerecordedaudio onlycontent. (LevelA) Section508, a: Atextequivalentforeverynon textelementshallbe provided(e.g.,via alt, longdesc, orinelementcontent). Providecaptionsforprerecordedwebvideo WCAG2.0,Guideline1.2.1:Forprerecordedvideo onlymedia, Eitheran alternativefortime basedmediaoranaudiotrackisprovidedthatpresents equivalentinformationforprerecordedvideo onlycontent. (LevelA) WCAG2.0,Guideline1.2.2:Captionsareprovidedforallprerecordedaudio contentinsynchronizedmedia,exceptwhenthemediaisamediaalternative fortextandisclearlylabeledassuch.(levela) Section508, b: Equivalentalternativesforanymultimedia presentationshallbesynchronizedwiththepresentation. Ensureallinformationiskeyboardaccessible WCAG2.0,Guideline2.1.1: Allfunctionalityofthecontentisoperable throughakeyboardinterfacewithoutrequiringspecifictimingsfor individualkeystrokes. (LevelA) Provideaudiodescriptionofvideocontent(i.e.allvisualinformationthatisnot conveyedaurallymustbedescribedinaseparate,synchronizedaudiotrackorlong textdescriptionforscreenreaderusers) WCAG2.0,Guideline1.2.5: Audiodescriptionisprovidedforallprerecorded videocontentinsynchronizedmedia. (LevelAA) 17

18 Surroundyourselfwithsolutions Plentyofoptionsareavailablefortranscribingaudioandcaptioningvideo.While someoftheseoptionsfitthetraditionalviewofwebaccessibilityastime consuming andexpensive,otherschallengethatview. Transcriptioncompanies.Transcriptioncompaniesprovidetranscriptsofaudio contentforafee,withaturn aroundtimebetweentwenty fourhoursandafew days.inoctober2006,jeffreydanielfreyreviewedninetranscriptionserviceson hisblog,ultimatelyrecommendingcastingwords.thiscompanycurrentlycharges $1.50/minutewithaguaranteedsix dayturnaround.foratypicalfive to eight minuteaudiopodcast,thecostwouldrun$7.50 $ Captioningcompanies.Captioningcompaniesprovidevideocaptionsforafee. ExamplesincludeAutomaticSyncTechnologies,VisualDataMediaServices,Video CaptionCorporation,andNCI. Voicerecognitiontechnology.Withaccesstoawell trainedversionofdragon NaturallySpeaking(orpossiblyawebservicelikeJott),apodcastercanautomate theprocessofcreatingatranscriptfromanaudiofile.inthecaseofpodcast interviews,thepodcastercan,atthecompletionoftheinterview,playtheroleof shadowspeaker forthesolepurposeofcreatingatranscript.ashadowspeaker speakstheinterviewee spartwiththevoicerecognitionsoftwareenabledsothat thesoftware,whichhasbeentrainedonthespeaker svoice,canmoreaccurately transcribetheinterviewee spart.theoriginalaudiointerviewremainsunchanged andtheseparateshadowedaudiofileisdeletedonceawrittentranscripthasbeen acquired. Captioningsoftware.Anumberofsoftwaresolutionsareavailableforcaptioning webvideos.sinceeverycaptionfileiscomprisedoftwomainpiecesofdata(atime stampandacorrespondingtextcaption),softwareprogramsforcaptioningtendto beinterchangeableandeasytomaster.captioningcanalsobedoneprettyeasilyby hand(withatexteditor),usingbasicxml stylemarkup.theprocesscanbetime consuming,however,evenwiththeassistanceofcaptioningsoftware.billcreswell, whoseblogisdevotedto captioningtheinternetonevideoatatime, estimates thatittakesonehourtocaptionthreeminutesofwebvideo.nevertheless,software solutionsareeasytofindandmanyarefree,includingsubsfactory,ncam s MAGpieandCCforFlash,andURUWorksSubtitleWorkshop.Softwareprogramsfor 18

19 purchaseincludesynchrimedia smovcaptioner($25),manitugroup scaptionate ($60),andVideoToolshed ssubbitssubtitler($250). Captioningthroughcrowdsourcing.Moreandmorevideoplayersonthewebhave built insupportforclosedcaptioning(e.g.google,fox,hulu,nbc).amajor developmentinclosedcaptioningonthewebwasgoogle sannouncementin September2006ofsupportforclosedcaptioninginitsvideoplayer.Captioned contentisalsobeingprovidedbyprojectreadon,whichispartneringwithother sites(e.g.barackobama.com,petsamerica.com)toprovidecaptionstreamsfortheir videos(theoriginalvideoscontinuetobehostedonthepartnersites,withthe ReadOnvideoplayersyncingcaptionswiththeoriginalsourcecontent).Onthe ReadOnsite,userscansuggestvideostobecaptioned,butusersdonotperformthe actualcaptioninglabor. Adifferent,potentiallymoreeffective,modeltapsdirectlyintothecrowdofusers fordirection,feedback,andlabor.onwebsitessuchasdotsubandoverstream, usersnotonlydecidewhichvideostoupload,transcribeorcaption,butalso performthecaptioningworkthemselvesusingasimplebuteffectivewebinterface. Webinterfacesforcaptioningareessentiallystreamlinedversionsofstand alone captioningsoftwareprograms.withoverstream,theuserimportsavideofroma supportedvideoprovider(e.g.google,youtube,etc.),andthenusesthevideoeditor toplaceastreamofcaptionsorsubtitlesoverthevideo.likethevideosonproject ReadOn,theoriginalvideosonOverstreamcontinuetobehostedatthesourcesite (e.g.youtube),anduserscancreatemultipleoverstreamsofthesamevideo(akinto multiple plys inbubbleply).withdotsub,thevideosareuploadedandhostedby dotsub,anduserscanviewsubtitlesinmultiplelanguagesfromadrop downmenu withoutchangingstreams/plys.whiledotsubwascreatedtoaddresstheneedfor translationservicesintheglobaleconomy(see AboutdotSUB ),bothdotsuband Overstreamalsoservetheneedsofdeafandhardofhearingcaptionusers.Bothalso leveragethepowerofcrowdsourcingbygivingaverylargecrowdofwebusersa simpleinterfacefortranscribingandcaptioningvideo,andlettingthecrowddothe rest.everyonebenefitsfromthecrowd scollectivelabor,eventhougheachmember ofthecrowdmayonlymakeaverysmallcontributiontobuildingthesite svalue. VModding.Thecrowdsourcingmodelisalsoatworkonanumberofwebsitesthat allowuserstoannotateormodifyexistingvideoswithtext, bubbles, orin video tags:bubbleply,veotag,viddler,jumpcut.becausethesesitesallowuserstooverlay textontovideo,theyhavethepotentialtobeusedascaptioningtools,eventhough 19

20 theyarenotbeingmarketedspecificallyassuch.forexample,overstream enabl[es]additionalpartiallytransparentdynamiccontentlayerstobedisplayed overanylivestreamingcontent ( AboutOverstream ).Moreover,Overstreamaims tocapitalizeonthegrowinginfluenceofvmodding: Overstream.netheraldsthe arrivalofanewtypeofvideo relatednetcommunity,thatofvideomodifiers. Tools forvideomoddingandremixing,particularlywhenwriting(asopposedto emoticonsorgraphicalelements)isinvolved,needtobedistinguishedfrom YouTube ssupportforannotations.youtube sannotationsdonotfullycapitalizeon thesocialaffordancesofweb2.0technologies.whereasbubbleply,viddler,and dotsuballowanyonetoaddannotationsorcaptionstoanyvideo,onlyauthorscan addannotationstoyoutubevideos.viewercanturnyoutubeannotationsonand off,buttheycannoteditoraddthem(i.e.viewersarenotvideomodifiersinthe YouTubeenvironment).Allowinganyonetoannotate(orcopyandannotate)any videowouldprovideanothermeansforviewerstocommentonvideos(inaddition towritingtextcommentsandauthoringresponsevideos)aswellaspotentially increasethenumberofcaptionedvideosavailableonyoutube. References AboutOCR. OfficeForCivilRights.U.S.DepartmentofEducation.RetrievedJuly3, 2008,fromhttp:// Bauman,H. D.L.(2004).Audism:Exploringthemetaphysicsofoppression.Journal ofdeafstudiesanddeafeducation,9(2), Belanger,Y.(June2005).DukeUniversityiPodfirstyearexperiencefinalevaluation reportcenterforinstructionaltechnology.dukeuniversity.retrievedjuly2,2008, fromhttp://cit.duke.edu/pdf/reports/ipod_initiative_04_05.pdf Davis,L.J.(2006).Theendofidentitypoliticsandthebeginningofdismodernism.In L.J.Davis(Ed.),TheDisabilityStudiesReader(pp ).NewYork:Routlege. Dobrin,D.N.(2004).What stechnicalabouttechnicalwriting?inj.johnson Eilola,& S.A.Selber(Eds.),CentralWorksinTechnicalCommunication(pp ).New York:OxfordUniversityPress. Don tquityourdayjob,podcasters.businessweek.april9,2007.retrievedjuly3, 2008,from, FiscalYear2007PerformanceandAccountabilityReport.U.S.Departmentof Education.November15,2007.RetrievedJuly3,2008,from 20

21 Guenther,K.(2002,March/April).Section508andyourwebsite.Online26(2), Horton,S.(2006).Accessbydesign:Aguidetouniversalusability.Berkeley:New Riders. Krause,S.D.(2006,Fall).Broadcastcomposition:Usingaudiofilesandpodcastsin anonlinewritingcourse.computersandcompositiononline.retrievedjuly2,2008, fromhttp:// Lewiecki Wilson,C.,&Brueggemann,B.J.(2008).Rethinkingpracticesand pedagogy:disabilityandtheteachingofwriting.inc.lewieck Wilson&B.J. Brueggemann(Eds.),DisabilityandtheTeachingofWriting(pp.1 9).Boston: Bedford/St.Martin s. Linton,S.(2006).Reassigningmeaning.InL.J.Davis(Ed.),TheDisabilityStudies Reader,2 nd ed.(pp ).NewYork:Routledge. Mack,S.&Ratcliffe,M.(2007).PodcastingBible.Indianapolis:WileyPublishing. Mitchell,D.,&Snyder,S.(2006).Narrativeprosthesisandthematerialityof metaphor.inl.j.davis(ed.),thedisabilitystudiesreader,2 nd ed.(pp ). NewYork:Routledge. Seale,J.(2006).E Learninganddisabilityinhighereducation:Accessibilityresearch andpractice.london:routledge. Solutionsforbusiness.RetrievedJuly3,2008,fromWebAIMwebsite: Takeanycollegeclassforfree:236opencoursewarecollections,podcasts,and videos.retrievedjune12,2007,fromonlineeducationdatabasewebsite: open courseware collections U.S.DepartmentofEducation.(1999,January).Impactofthecivilrightslaws.Office forcivilrights.retrievedjuly3,2008,fromofficeforcivilrightswebsite: WCAGWorkingGroup.(2007,May17).WebContentAccessibilityGuidelines2.0. RetrievedJuly2,2008,fromW3C:WorldWideWebConsortiumwebsite: 21